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² For a variety of approaches focusing on the automobile industry see for example Abernathy, William, The Productivity Dilemma: Roadblock to Innovation in the Automobile Industry (Baltimore, 1974)Google Scholar; Womack, James P., Jones, Daniel T. and Roos, Daniel, The Machine that Changed the World (New York, 1990)Google Scholar; Keller, Maryann, Rude Awakening: The Rise, Fall and Struggle for Recovery of General Motors (New York, 1989)Google Scholar.

³ For a good guide to this literature see Katzenstein, Peter J., ed., Industry and Politics in West Germany: Toward the Third Republic (Ithaca, N.Y., 1989)Google Scholar.

⁴ Some recent exceptions are Stokes, Raymond G., Divide and Prosper: The Heirs of I. G. Farben under Allied Authority, 1945–51 (Berkeley, Calif., 1988)Google Scholar; Opting for Oil The Political Economy of Technological Change in the West German Chemical Industry, 1945–1961 (Cambridge, 1994)Google Scholar; Gillingham, John, Coal, Steel and the Rebirth of Europe, 1945–1955: The Germans and French from Ruhr Conflict to Economic Community (Cambridge, 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a broader discussion of the gaps in the literature see Stokes, Raymond G., “Technology and the West German Wirtschaftswunder,” Technology and Culture 32 (January 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Overy, Richard J., “State and Industry in Germany in the Twentieth Century” German History 12 (1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵ Olson, Mancur, The Rise and Decline of Nations: Economic Growth, Stagflation and Social Rigidities (New Haven, Conn., 1982), esp. 76, 77Google Scholar.

⁶ Feinstein, Charles H., “Benefits of Backwardness and Costs of Continuity” in Graham, Andrew and Seldon, Anthony, eds., Government and Economies in the Postwar World: Economic Policies and Comparative Performance, 1945–1985 (London, 1990), esp. 289Google Scholar; and “Economic Growth Since 1870: Britain's Performance in Perspective,” Oxford Review of Economic Policy 4 (1988)Google Scholar; Broadberry, Stephen, “The Impact of the World Wars on the Long Run Performance of the British Economy,” Oxford Review of Economic Policy 4 (1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Supple, Barry, “British Economic Decline Since 1945” in Floud, Roderick and McCloskey, Donald, eds., The Economic History of Britain since 1700 (Cambridge, 1994), 339Google Scholar; Crafts, N. F. R., “The Assessment: British Economic Growth Over the Long Run,” Oxford Review of Economic Policy 4 (1988): i–xviiiCrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ Giersch, Herbert, Paqué, Karl-Heinz and Schmieding, Holger, The Fading Miracle: Four Decades of Market Economy in Germany (Cambridge, 1992), xiCrossRefGoogle Scholar and passim. For older versions of a similar position, see Sohmen, Egon, “Competition and Growth: The Lessons of West Germany,” American Economic Review 44, (1959): 986–1003Google Scholar; and Janossy, F., The End of the Economic Miracle (New York, 1971)Google Scholar.

⁸ Reich, Simon, The Fruits of Fascism: Postwar Prosperity in Historical Perspective (Ithaca, N.Y., 1990)Google Scholar. Quotations are from 54, 61.

⁹ Abelshauser's views are most fully set out in Abelshauser, Werner, Die Wirtschaftgeschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Frankfurt, 1983)Google Scholar; but see also Abelshauser, Werner, “Ansatze korporativer Marktwirtschaft in der Koreakrise der frühen fünfziger Jahre,” Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 30 (1982): 310–314Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Johnson, Chalmers, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, 1982)Google Scholar. Aspects of Johnson's interpretation have been effectively criticized by, among others, Friedman, Misunderstood Miracle, but his analysis of economic policymaking in the 1950s and early 1960s remains compelling.

¹¹ Purs, Jaroslav, “The Internal Combustion Engine and the Revolution in Transport: The Case of Czechoslovakia with some European Comparisons” in Barker, Theo, ed., The Economic and Social Effects of the Spread of Motor Vehicles (London, 1987), 204–5Google Scholar.

¹² Fritz Blaich, “Why did the Pioneer Fall Behind? Motorisation in Germany Between the Wars,” in Barker, ed., Economic and Social Effects of the Spread of Motor Vehicles, 148–51; Bowden, S. M., “Demand and Supply Constraints in the Inter-War UK Car Industry: Did the Manufacturers Get it Right?” Business History 33 (April 1991): 241–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³ Sloan, Alfred, My Years With General Motors (London, 1986), 349Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Blaich, F., “Die ‘Fehlrationalisierung’ in der deutschen Automobilindustrie 1924 bis 1929,” Tradition 18 (1973): 27Google Scholar; Kugler, Anita, “Von der Werkstatt zum Flieβband: Etappen der frühen Automobilproduktion in Deutschland,” Geschichte und Gesellschaft 13 (1987)Google Scholar; Bellon, Bernard P., Mercedes in Peace and War: German Automobile Workers, 1903–1945 (New York, 1990)Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Schrader, H., BMW Automobile: Vom ersten Dixi bis zum Modell von Morgen (Gerlingen, 1978), 35Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Chandler notes the contrast, though he also gives a rather more favorable picture of the German auto industry in the 1930s. Chandler, Alfred, Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1990), 527–531Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Overy, Richard J., “Transportation and Rearmament in the Third Reich,” Historical Journal 16 (1973): 401CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸ “Report of Interrogation of Mr. Karlos” (Volkswagen Design Engineer and personal assistant to Dr. Porsche), Report of German Reparations Assessment Teams (RAT) 151 (10 February to 3 April 1946), Imperial War Museum (IWM), London; Jonathan Wood reproduces a suggested design change alleged to be in the Führer's own hand. See Wood, Jonathan, The Volkswagen Beetle, including Kannann Ghia (London, 1983), 17Google Scholar.

¹⁹ There is a sizeable literature on Hitler's industrial policies. See particularly Overy, Richard J., “Cars, Roads and Economic Recovery in Germany, 1932–8,” Economic History Review 28, (1975)Google Scholar; Overy, Richard J., The Nazi Economic Recovery, 1932–9 (London, 1982CrossRefGoogle Scholar), and Reich, Fruits of Fascism.

²⁰ According to the United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Report 77: 4–5, “No evidence was discovered of a systematic plan for converting the industry to war production.”

²¹ Nelson, Walter Henry, Small Wonder: The Amazing Story of the VW (Boston, Mass., 1970), 93Google Scholar.

²² Kirchberg, P., “Typisierung in der deutschen Kraftfahrzeugindustrie und der Generalbevollmachtigte,” Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftgeschichte 8 (1969): 120–4Google Scholar.

²³ Sedgwick, Michael, Cars of the Thirties (London, 1970)Google Scholar; Wood, The VW Beetle.

²⁴ Doleschal, Reinhard, “Zur geschichtlichen Entwicklung des Volkswagenkonzerns,” in Doleschal, Reinhard and Dombois, Rainer, eds., Wohin läuft VW? Automobilproduktion in der Wirtschaftkrise (Reinbek, 1982), 30Google Scholar.

²⁵ The complex design history is well chronicled and illustrated in Wood, Beetle, 20–28.

²⁶ Nelson, Small Wonder, 48.

²⁷ Kluke, P., “Hitler und das Volkswagenwerkprojekt,” Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 8 (1960): 376–9Google Scholar; Overy, Richard J., “Heavy Industry in the Third Reich: The Reichswerke Crisis,” European History Quarterly 15 (1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁸ Reich, Fruits of Fascism, 155–7.

²⁹ The Willow Run plant was built 1940–2 and at the time of its opening (for the manufacture of B-24 bombers) was regarded as the largest single industrial structure in the world. Lacey, Robert, Ford, the Men and the Machine (Boston, Mass., 1986), 390Google Scholar.

³⁰ Doleschal, “Zur geschichtlichen Entwicklung,” 25–32; Reich, Fruits of Fascism, 156–8.

³¹ Reich, Fruits of Fascism, 158.

³² Wilkins, Mira and Hill, Frank E., American Business Abroad: Ford on Six Continents (Detroit, 1964), 284, 273–82Google Scholar.

³³ Ludvigsen, Karl, Opel: Wheels to the World (Princeton, NJ, 1975)Google Scholar; Due, Dietmar and Jorg, Hentrich, Krise der Automobilindustrie: Das Beispiel des Multis General Motors/Opel AG (Frankfurt, 1981)Google Scholar.

³⁴ Reich, Fruits of Fascism, 154.

³⁵ The nearest approximations were Zschopauer's DKW Reichsklasse and the Opel P-4. See von Seherr-Thoss, H. C. Graf, Die deutsche Automobilindustrie: Eine Dokumentation von 1886 bis 1979, 2nd ed. (Stuttgart, 1979), 290–304Google Scholar for details on German small cars in the 1930s.

³⁶ Quoted in Nelson, Small Wonder, 47.

³⁷ Sloan, My Years with General Motors, 256; Ludvigsen, Opel, 50–1.

³⁸ Reich, Fruits of Fascism, 158.

³⁹ Sloninger, Jerry, The Volkswagen Story (Cambridge, 1980), 48Google Scholar; Nelson, Small Wonder, 92.

⁴⁰ See Reich, Fruits of Fascism, 167–9. Further details here are mainly drawn from United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS), Report No. 88: Volkswagenwerk, Fallersleben, Germany (Munitions Division, USSBS, 17 September 1945); USSBS, Plant Report No. 10: Volkswagenwerk, Fallersleben, Germany (Munitions Division, Motor and Tank Branch, August, 1945); and USSBS, Report No. 77: German Motor Vehicles Industry, Munitions Division, 3 November 1945 (Washington, D.C., National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration (NA), 1975), M1013.

⁴¹ USSBS, Report No. 88, 13–19 and Bomb Plotting Diagrams, Annex 8.

⁴² USSBS, Report No. 88, 13, 19–20, and Exhibit M “Dispersal Program.”

⁴³ USSBS, Report No.88, 2.

⁴⁴ On the history of Wolfsburg under the occupation see Turner, Ian, “British Occupation Policy and Its Effects on the Town of Wolfsburg and the Volkswagenwerk, 1945–49” (Ph.D. diss., University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, 1984)Google Scholar. Turner's massive thesis is a mine of information on all aspects of the history of Volkswagen and Wolfsburg and remains an essential work.

⁴⁵ Abelshauser, Werner, Wirtschaft in Westdeutschland, 1945–8 (Stuttgart, 1975)Google Scholar; Carlin, Wendy, “Economic Reconstruction in Western Germany, 1945–55: The Displacement of ‘Vegetative Control’,” in Turner, Ian, ed., Reconstruction in Postwar Germany: British Occupation Policy in the Western Zones, 1945–55 (New York, 1989)Google Scholar; Stokes, Divide and Prosper. also shows that damage was comparatively light during the War in much of the German chemical industry.

⁴⁶ Turner, “British Occupation Policy,” 69–71; Alan Kramer, “British Dismantling Politics, 1945–9: A Reassessment,” in Turner, ed., Reconstruction in Post-War Germany.

⁴⁷ Kuldick, Bruce, American Policy and the Division of Germany: The Clash with Russia Over Reparations (Ithaca, N.Y., 1972)Google Scholar; Backer, J., Priming the German Economy: American Occupation Policies, 1945–1948 (Durham, N.C., 1971), 134–5Google Scholar, 158.

⁴⁸ Kramer, Alan, The West German Economy, 1945–55 (NY, Berg, 1991), 46–7Google Scholar; Turner, “British Occupation Policy,” passim.

⁴⁹ Minutes of the Working Party on the German Motor Vehicle Industry, 31 May 1944 and 16 September 1944, and attached notes, FO 942/197, Public Records Office (PRO), London.

⁵⁰ Report by Working Party on the German Motor Vehicle Industry, December 1944, FO 942/197, PRO, London.

⁵¹ von Oppen, Beate Ruhm, ed., Documents on Germany under Occupation, 1945–1954 (Oxford, 1955), 13–27Google Scholar.

⁵² “Report to Sub-Committee on Machinery and Optics on Planned Production for the German Motor Industry, 1949,” Appendix A, 27 November 1946. Sir Percy Mills (Control Commission for Germany British Element) to Mark Turner (Control Office) 22 May 1946, BT 211/92, PRO.

⁵³ Sloninger, Volkswagen Story, 57; Adeney, Martin, The Motor Makers: The Turbulent History of Britain's Car Industry (London, 1989), 209Google Scholar. For similar views see also Nelson, Small Wonder, 101–2; Laux, James, The European Automobile Industry (New York, 1992), 170Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ The military Kübelwagen had an entirely different body and extensive modifications to wheels, gears, axles and chassis clearance. “Report on examination of a German Light Aid Detachment Vehicle Type 82 Volkswagen by the Rootes Group Engineering Dept., Humber Ltd, September 1943,” reprinted in BIOS Final Report No. 998, Imperial War Museum (IWM), London.

⁵⁵ Nelson, Small Wonder, 101–2.

⁵⁶ “Investigation of Developments in the German Automobile Industry during the War period.” Report of Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders Commission (SMMT) to Germany led by Dr. H. E. Merritt (Senior Technical Executive of the Nuffield Organisation), 24 July to 1 October 1945, BIOS Final Report No. 300, IWM.

⁵⁷ RAT 151, (10 February to 3 April 1946), BIOS Final Report No. 768, IWM.

⁵⁸ “Report by Humber Ltd. on the Comparative Road Performance Test of the Volkswagen Saloon Type 11” (February 1946); “Report by Singer Motors on Road Performance Test of the Volkswagen Military Vehicle Type 21” (February 1946), in BIOS Final Report No. 998, IWM.

⁵⁹ Olley, Maurice, “The Motor Car Industry in Germany during the period 1939–1945,” in BIOS Overall Report 21 (1949): 20Google Scholar, IWM.

⁶⁰ C. P. Boas to A. M. Skeffington (Control Office), 22 August 1946, BT 211/92, PRO.

⁶¹ See BT 211/92; AVIA 49/65, PRO.

⁶² C. A. L. Dunphie, “Volkswagen GmbH, 5th September 1946,” AVIA 49/116, PRO, reporting the results of an SMMT study in the summer of 1946.

⁶³ G. S. Knight to General Staff (Civil Affairs), 24 April 1946, MIN. SUPP. 14/397, PRO; on the serious problems experienced by the Russians in removing whole plants and operating them in a different industrial context, see Cairncross, Alec, The Price of War: British Policy on German Reparations, 1941–1949 (Oxford, 1986), 200–7Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ G. S. Knight to Mr. Metz (Ministry of Supply), 24 April 1946, reporting discussions with SMMT; W. Beard, “Motor Vehicle Plant from Germany,” 21 June 1946, AVIA 49/116, PRO; R. H. Bright (Ministry of Supply) to Derek Wood (Board of Trade), 3 September 1946, BT 211/92, PRO.

⁶⁵ D. Wood to J. N. V. Duncan (Control Office for Germany and Austria), 10th September 1946, BT 211/92, PRO.

⁶⁶ G. W. Turner, “Minute,” 12 July 1946, AVIA 49/116, PRO.

⁶⁷ Marcel Paul, the Communist minister of industry, wanted to move the whole plant to France as the possible basis for a new French “people's car” and Peugeot already had links to Volkswagen through its wartime subcontracting role. Sloninger, Volkswagen Story, 57; Loubet, Jean-Louis, Automobiles Peugeot: Une Réussite Industrielle, 1945–74 (Paris, 1990), 21Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ Knights to General Staff, 24 April 1946; H. E. Merritt, “Report to the Ministry of Supply on the inspection of machine tools in the German automobile factories, 16th August 1946.” Both in SUPP 14/397, PRO.

⁶⁹ John Schuy to G. M. Jennings (Treasury), 17 Oct. 1946, BT 211/92, PRO; John Selwyn (Board of Trade) to Colonel Rowell, 17 Nov. 1946; “Notes on an Informal Meeting Held 11 Oct. 1946 on the Subject of Production and Possible Export of the Volkswagen car,” BT 211/92, PRO; R. H. Bright (Ministry of Supply) to Derek Wood (BT), 3 Sept. 1946, BT 211/92, PRO; Letters in MIN/SUPP 14/397, PRO.

⁷⁰ An important related industry dismantlement and transfer of plant and product did take place. BSA obtained the Bantam motor cycle designs and tooling from DKW and the Bantam went on to become the best-selling motorcycle in Briain in the 1950s and 1960s (perhaps the nearest equivalent to the Beetle in motorcycles). Ryerson, Barry, The Giants of Small Heath: The History of BSA (Haynes, Yeovil, 1980), 93–4Google Scholar.

⁷¹ Turner, “British Occupation Policy,” 170ff.

⁷² “Discussions with Industry on the Implementation of the Level of Industry Plan,” 7 Aug. 1946, AVIA 49/65, PRO; cf also BT 211/73, PRO.

⁷³ “Notes on Informal Meeting,” 11 Oct. 1946, AVIA 49/65, PRO; Kramer, “Dismantling Politics.”

⁷⁴ A. Kinnear (Control Office) to G. M. Jennings, 4 Oct. 1946, “Some notes on the manufacturing facilities of Volkswagenwerk,” BT 211/92, PRO; R. J. P. Hewison (Chancellor of Exchequer's Office) to Mr. Johnston (Economics Department Foreign Office), 16 July 1946, FO 943/859, PRO.

⁷⁵ J. Selwyn to H. A. R. Binney, 12 Sept. 1946, BT 211/92, PRO.

⁷⁶ “Repercussions of the German Level of Industry Plan on Allied Economies,” 7 June 1946, BT 211/1, PRO.

⁷⁷ “Minute” 22 Nov. 1946, BT 211/5, PRO. For a very similar relationship between the Board of Trade and the chemical industry see Stokes, Divide and Prosper, 78–80.

⁷⁸ Milward, Alan S., The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–52 (London, 1984), 363Google Scholar; Yergin, Daniel, Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War (New York, 1990), 225–32Google Scholar.

⁷⁹ “Plan for Motor Vehicle Production in the Combined Area,” Paper from the Industry Division CCG for meeting of the Bipartite Economic Panel, 15–18 March 1947, PRO, FO 943/171 BIECO/P (47) 72; Backer, Priming, 80–2.

⁸⁰ L. E. D. Barber (DAF Section, Property Control Branch) to Chief, Financial Division, “Subject: The Volkswagenwerk Complex in Control under Law 52,” June 1947, PRO, BT 211/92; Col. C. R. Radclyffe (Volkswagen Controller, Mechanical Engineering Industry Branch) to Lord Brabazon of Tara, 15 July 1947, SUPP 14/397, PRO.

⁸¹ E. Harle, Director of Mechanical Engineering Branch to Chief of Industry Division, 15 May 1947, BT 211/92, PRO; “Report to Board of Control on Investigations in Belgium and Holland to Appoint Volkswagen Concessionaires,” Oct. 1947, FO 1046/93, PRO.

⁸² Turner, “British Occupation Policy,” 603–608.

⁸³ E. Vitger to N. A. Bogdan, 14 July 1949; Ford Motor Co., “A program for a new passenger car to be produced at Ford Werke Cologne,” 24 Feb. 1950, box 30, AR 65–71, Ford Motor Co. Archives (FMC), Dearborn, Mich.

⁸⁴ G. Howard to E. Vitger 21, July 1949; E. Vitger to N. A. Bogdan, 14 July 1949, box 30, AR 65–71, FMC.

⁸⁵ R. Gresham-Cooke, Director of SMMT, Letter to The Times, 10 Jan. 1949.

⁸⁶ P. Robertson to E. Bevin, “German Competition in Export Markets,” 8 March 1949, BT 11/4204, PRO; Hamilton-Russell and A. Nove, “Notes by BT on the Scope and Effectiveness of German Competition,” April 1950, BT 11/4009, PRO.

⁸⁷ “German Export Competition,” Dec, 1948, BT 11/4024, PRO.

⁸⁸ See esp. “Subject: the VW Complex in Control under Law 52,” June 1947, Property Control Branch, Finance Division, FO 371/65114, PRO, and SUPP 14/397, PRO, passim; Robert Wyse, “The Great Berryman Story” Safer Motoring, 1965.

⁸⁹ Turner, “British Occupation Policy,” 175–81.

⁹⁰ “Memorandum from Ministry of Supply to War Office,” 23 March 1946, AVIA 49/116, PRO.

⁹¹ By January 1949 there were 31 large dealers and 103 individual dealers. Turner, Ian, “Das Volkswagenwerk—Ein Deutsches Unternehmen unter Britisch Kontrolle,” in Foschepoth, Joseph and Steininger, Rolf, eds., Die Britische Deutschland-und Besatzungpolitik, 1945–9 (Paderborn, 1985), 295–6Google Scholar; Turner, “British Occupation Policy,” 175–81.

⁹² Minutes of the Board of Control, 1948, FO 1046/194, PRO.

⁹³ Turner, “Volkswagenwerk,” 287–8.

⁹⁴ Minutes of the Board of Control, 6 Dec. 1946, FO 1039/797, PRO.

⁹⁵ Turner, “British Occupation Policy,” 205.

⁹⁶ L. E. D. Barber (DAF Section, Property Control Branch) to Chief, Financial Division, “Subject: The Volkswagenwerk Complex in Control under Law 52,” June 1947, BT 211/92, PRO.

⁹⁷ C. R. Radclyffe to H. Orr-Ewing (Industry Division), 13 Oct. 1947; “Memorandum for Allocations and Priorities Board,” 11 Dec. 1946, FO 1039/797, PRO; L. E. D. Barber (DAF Section, Property Control Branch) to Chief, Financial Division, “Subject: The Volkswagenwerk Complex in Control under Law 52,” June 1947, BT 211/92, PRO.

⁹⁸ “Finance Division and DAF Properties at Wolfsburg,” Oct. 1947, PRO, FO 1046/93.

⁹⁹ Nelson, Small Wonder, 122–5; Sloninger, Volkswagen Story 61–2.

¹⁰⁰ USSBS, Report No. 77, NA, M1013.

¹⁰¹ This became the basis for the Moskvitch 400 in the Soviet Union. Opel technology was a key prop of Russian auto production and engineering in the 1950s. For a while it seemed that the entire Russelsheim plant might be dismantled and shipped to the Russian zone. See Ludvigsen, Opel, 58.

¹⁰² Sloan, My Years With General Motors, 331.

¹⁰³ Minutes of the Financial Policy Committee, 5 April 1948, quoted by Sloan, My Years With General Motors, 333.

¹⁰⁴ Minutes of Finance Policy Committee, 3rd May 1948, quoted by Sloan, My Years With General Motors, 336.

¹⁰⁵ Sloan, My Years With General Motors, 331–6; Ludvigsen, Opel, 58–61; Due, Dietmar and Jorg, Hentrich, Krise der Automobilindustrie: Das Beispiel des Multis General Motors/Opel AG (Frankfurt, 1981), 29–32Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ Despite some damage from U.S. shelling late in the war, Allan Nevins and Frank E. Hill conclude that “no herculean effort would be required to put Ford-Werke of Cologne back into operating condition.” See Nevins, Allan and Hill, Frank E., Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 1933–1962 (New York, 1962), 289Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁷ Frank Cort, “Report on Cologne Plant,” undated, May 1945, ace 507, box 17, Henry Ford Museum Archives (HFMA).

¹⁰⁸ Charles Thacker to Sir Stanford Cooper, 8 Dec. 1947; B. Lonsdale, “General Review, January 1946 to September 1947,” ace 713, box 20, HFMA. See also Wilkins and Hill, American Business Abroad, 345–6.

¹⁰⁹ Percy Mills (CCG) to Mark Turner (Control Office for Germany and Austria), 22 May 1946, BT 211/92, PRO.

¹¹⁰ Rosellen, Hanns-Peter, Ford-Schritte in Deutschland, 1945–1970 (Frankfurt, 1988), 21, 35Google Scholar.

¹¹¹ E. R. Breech, “Agenda for Meeting on October 18th 1948 at Fordwerke,” AR 65–71, box 30, FMC.

¹¹² Erhard Vitger to R. I. Roberge, 22 Aug. 1947, ace 713, box 19, HFMA; FMC-US Minutes of Foreign Operations Committee, 1 July 1947, Ace 713 Box 20, HFMA.

¹¹³ Cash fell from RM 22.6m to DM 1.6m and orders for new plant and machinery had to be canceled. See R. I. Roberge to E. Breech, 21 Jan. 1948; “Manager's Report to Directors,” 16 July 1948, ace 713, box 20, HFMA.

¹¹⁴ Wilkins and Hill, American Business Abroad, 338, 344, 377, 393.

¹¹⁵ Wilkins and Hill, American Business Abroad, 390.

¹¹⁶ Nelson, Small Wonder, 17–18, 136.

¹¹⁷ Sloninger, Volkswagen Story, 57; Wilkins and Hill argued that the purchase of VW was “of more than passing interest.” See Wilkins and Hill, American Business Abroad, 368.

¹¹⁸ Henry Ford II and Graeme Howard, “Report on European Trip, February to March 1948,” AR 65–71, box 25, FMC.

¹¹⁹ Ford and Howard, “Report on European Trip.”

¹²⁰ The letter does not appear in the Ford archives but it is summarized in G. Howard to H. Nordhoff, 7 June 1948, AR 65–71, box 30, FMC.

¹²¹ Ford and Howard, “Report on European Trip.”

¹²² See Sobel, Robert, The Life and Times of Dillon Read (New York, 1991), 97–111Google Scholar for U.S./German business relations before the war.

¹²³ G. Howard to H. Nordhoff, 7 June 1948, AR 65–71, box 30, FMC.

¹²⁴ Ford and Howard, “Report on European Trip.”

¹²⁵ W. L. Tregonning to Sir Eric Coates, 15 April 1948; Tregonning to R. H. Parker, 29 and 30 April 1948; J. F. Cahan to Coates, 21 April 1948; Parker to Tregonning, 29 April 1948, PRO.

¹²⁶ At one stage he believed that Nordhoff had accepted the proposal. Ford and Howard, “Report on European Trip.”

¹²⁷ Howard to Nordhoff, 7 June 1948, AR 65–71, box 30, FMC, quoting Nordhoffs handwritten letter.

¹²⁸ Ibid; Howard to Nordhoff, 26 July 1948, AR 65–71, box 30, FMC.

¹²⁹ It was described as “a box on an organisation chart without any linear attachments,” Ford and Howard, “Report on European Trip.”

¹³⁰ E. Breech to Henry Ford II, 24 Oct. 1948, AR 65–71, box 25, FMC. This is probably the hotel room meeting that appears (in May 1948) in the apocryphal Nelson version. Note that Henry Ford II was not present.

¹³¹ E. Breech to Henry Ford II, 24 Oct. 1948, AR 65–71, box 30, FMC.

¹³² Quotation from Arthur J. Wieland at Minutes of Product Planning Committee, 27 Feb. 1950, quoted by Wilkins and Hill, American Business Abroad, 390.

¹³³ “Property of the German Labour Front,” 26 Sept. 1945, FO 371/46828, PRO.

¹³⁴ At VW, because of the complex production issues involved the Industry Division (Mechanical Engineering Branch) took control of production matters, while the Property Control Branch held responsibility for the financial and property matters.

¹³⁵ “Volkswagenwerk Complex: Statement to Board of Control,” August 1947, FO 944/196, PRO.

¹³⁶ H. A. Goff, (Property Control Section) to R. H. Parker, (Property Control Branch, Finance Division), 14 May 1948, FO 1046/93, PRO; “Minutes of the 11th Board of Control Meeting of the VW GmbH and DAF Properties,” 6 Dec. 1946, FO 944/196, PRO.

¹³⁷ Control Commission for Germany, “Memorandum for Meeting with Professor Erhard, 8th October 1949,” B115/3377, Bundesarchiv (BA), Koblenz.

¹³⁸ “Draft Directive on DAF property at Wolfsburg,” Autumn 1947, FO 1046/93, PRO.

¹³⁹ L. E. D. Barber, “Subject: The Volkswagenwerk complex in Control under Law 52,” June 1947, BT 211/92, PRO.

¹⁴⁰ Niedersachsen Regional Intelligence Office, “Subject: Volkswagenwerk,” 21 October 1949, FO 371/76723, PRO.

¹⁴¹ Turner, “British Occupation Policy,” 663.

¹⁴² Memorandum from Ministry of Finance, 12 Sept. 1950 and Memorandum from Economics Ministry on meeting between Economics Ministry and Ministry of Finance, 14 Nov. 1950, B115/3377, BA.

¹⁴³ “Notes on a meeting with the Finance Minister of Lower Saxony,” 2 November 1949; Dr. Strickrodt (Lower Saxony Minister of Finance) to Federal Ministry of Finance, 20 July 1950 and 6 Jan. 1951, B115/3377, BA.

¹⁴⁴ Kramer and Bimbaum (Ministry of Finance) to Westrick (Economics Ministry) 9 April 1951; Westrick to Kramer, 18 April 1951, B115/3377, BA.

¹⁴⁵ “Volkswagen in the Darkroom,” Der Volkswirt 42 (1951)Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁶ Minutes of Volkswagen Advisory Board, 5 Oct. 1951, B115/3379, BA.

¹⁴⁷ Notes to Minutes of Advisory Board Meeting, 5 March 1952, B115/3378, BA.

¹⁴⁸ H. Oeftering to Volkswagen Directors, 16 June 1952, B115/3378, BA; and 28 Nov. 1952, B115/3379, BA.

¹⁴⁹ Volkswagen Monthly Reports, B115/3379, BA.

¹⁵⁰ Transport Ministry to Chancellor Adenauer, 3 April 1951, B115/3416, BA; Minutes of Cabinet Meeting, 30 March 1951, B115/3416, BA; Scholz to Kattenstroth, 30 March 1951, B102/76034, BA; Hannoversche Allgemeine Zeitung, 31 March 1951.

¹⁵¹ Minutes of Cabinet Meeting, 18 April 1951; Memorandum from Hartmann (State Secretary) to Kramer (Ministry of Finance), 18 April 1951; Memorandum from Ministry of Finance on discussions with F. Novotny of Volkswagen, 5 Sept 1951, B115/3416, BA; Scholz to Kattenstroth 2 April 1951, B102/76034, BA.

¹⁵² Memorandum from Ministry of Finance on discussions with F. Novotny of Volkswagen, 5 Sept 1951, B115/3416, BA.

¹⁵³ H. Nordhoff to H. Oeftering, 23 April 1952, B115/3417, BA.

¹⁵⁴ Memorandum for forthcoming discussion with Dr. Nordhoff, 26 Aug. 1953, B115/ 3417, BA.

¹⁵⁵ H. Nordhoff to H. Oeftering, 7 Oct. 1953; Memorandum from Birnbaum on discussions with Nordhoff, 8 Oct. 1953, B115/3383, BA.

¹⁵⁶ For a discussion of these issues, see Turner, Lowell, Democracy at Work: Changing World Markets and the Future of Labor Unions (Ithaca NY, 1991), 117–9Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁷ Koch, Günter, Arheitnehmer steuern mit: Belegschaftsvertretung bei Volkswagen ab 1945 (Koln, 1987), 30Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁸ Volkswagen Akte, 29 Dec. 1947, Volkswagen Archives (VW), Wolfsburg.

¹⁵⁹ Koch, Arbeitnehmer steuern mit, 50–3.

¹⁶⁰ Koch, Arbeitnehmer steuern mit, 36, 40–63.

¹⁶¹ Siegfried, Klaus-Jorg, Rüstungsproduktion und Zwangsarbeit im Volkswagenwerk, 1939–1945: Eine Dokumentation (Frankfurt, 1986)Google Scholar.

¹⁶² Hilterschied, H., Industrie und Gemeinde: Die Beziehungen zwischen der Stadt Wolfsburg und dem Volkswagenwerk und ihre Auswirkungen auf die kommunale Selbstverwaltung (Berlin, 1977), 94Google Scholar; Koch, Arbeitnehmer steuern mit, 33–4; Turner, “British Occupation Policy,” 211–2; Sloninger, Volkswagen Story, 56.

¹⁶³ On the rise and fall of the DRP see Turner, “British Occupation Policy,” 680–723.

¹⁶⁴ Koch, Arbeitnehmer steuern mit, 35.

¹⁶⁵ Koch, Arbeitnehmer steuern mit, 40–5.

¹⁶⁶ Bork had worked at VW before the war, but he had also been imprisoned under the Nazis. He only joined the Works Council in 1950—a significant advantage because he was not involved in the “Peter Affair” which tended to discredit all parties involved. Koch, Arbeitnehmer steuern mit, 83–4.

¹⁶⁷ Schenzinger, K. A., Simon, H. and Zischka, A., Heinrich Nordhoff (Munich, 1969), 167Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁸ Koch, Arbeitnehmer steuern mit, 63.

¹⁶⁹ For the wider context of the development of German trade unions and collective bargaining, see Thelen.

¹⁷⁰ Heinrich Nordhoff, “Report to Advisory Board” 22 May 1951, B115/3378, BA.

¹⁷¹ Heinrich Nordhoff, “Report to Advisory Board” 22 May 1951, B115/3378, BA.

¹⁷² H. Oeftering, “Memorandum on Volkswagen labour contract”, 5 Sept. 1952, B115/3416, BA.

¹⁷³ Nordhoff to Oeftering, 6 March 1953, B115/3416, BA.

¹⁷⁴ Minutes of Cabinet Meeting, 2 3 June 1953, B115/3379, BA; Frankfurter Allgemeine, 7 July 1953.

¹⁷⁵ Ministry of Finance, “Memorandum on recent speech by Dr. Nordhoff”, 6 July 1953, B115/3416, BA.

¹⁷⁶ L. Erhard to H. Oeftering, 6 Feb. 1956, B115/3422, BA.

¹⁷⁷ “Note of Telephone Dictation of Minister of Finance Schaffer”, 1 Feb. 1956, B115/3422, BA.

¹⁷⁸ F. Schaffer (Finance Minister) to BDA, 8 Feb. 1956, B115/3422, BA.

¹⁷⁹ Letter from Ruhr Coal Mining Employers' Association to F. Schaffer, 6 March 1957, B115/3423, BA; L. Erhard to H. Oeftering, 6 Feb. 1956, B115/3422, BA.

¹⁸⁰ L. Erhard to F. Schaffer, 12 March 1956, B115/3422, BA.

¹⁸¹ Minutes of Cabinet Meeting, 13 June 1956, B115/3422, BA.

¹⁸² Bimbaum to Schaffer, 12 June 1956, B115/3422, BA.

¹⁸³ “Memorandum on Meeting with Dr. Nordhoff Concerning the Regulation of Working Time”, 9 May 1956, B115/3422, BA; H. Nordhoff to H. C. Paulssen (President of Bundesvereinigung Deutscher Arbeitgeberverbände [BdA]), 31 March 1957, B115/3423, BA.

¹⁸⁴ Telegram from Schaffer to Nordhoff, 6 March 1957, B115/3423, BA.

¹⁸⁵ L. Erhard to F. Schaffer, 4 April 1957; Letter from the State Secretary to the Chancellor to F. Schaffer, 18 April 1957, B115/3423, BA.

¹⁸⁶ Letter from Ruhr Coal Mining Employers' Association to F. Schaffer, 30 March 1957, B115/3422, BA.

¹⁸⁷ Neue Ruhr Zeitung, 29 June 1957.

¹⁸⁸ L. Erhard to F. Lindrath, 12 Nov. 1959, B115/3428, BA.

¹⁸⁹ L. Erhard to F. Lindrath (Minister of Federal Economic Property), 8 March 1958; Letter from Ministry of Finance to Ruhr Coal Association, 14 Nov. 1957, B115/3424, BA.

¹⁹⁰ F. Lindrath to H. Nordhoff, 18 March 1959 and 29 April 1960, B115/3427, BA.

¹⁹¹ L. Erhard to F. Lindrath, 12 Nov. 1959, B115/3428, BA.

¹⁹² H. Oeftering to F. Blucher (Deputy Chancellor), 27 Nov. 1954, B115/3419, BA; Minutes of the Supervisory Board, 27 Aug 1954.

¹⁹³ Minutes of a meeting between the Board of Volkswagen, the Ministers of Lower Saxony and the Deputy Chancellor, 17 Jan. 1955, B115/3419, BA; L. Erhard to F. Schaffer, 5 Nov. 1954, BA, B115/3421.

¹⁹⁴ W. Sohngen (Director of Rhine Steelworks) to H. Oeftering, 19 Nov. 1954, B115/3419, BA.

¹⁹⁵ Minutes of a meeting between the Deputy Chancellor, Dr. Nordhoff and Dr. Ahrens (Lower Saxony Finance Minister), 17 Jan. 1955, B115/3419, BA; Minutes of the Supervisory Board (VW) 5 Nov. 1954, B115/3419, BA.

¹⁹⁶ Telegram from F. Blücher (Deputy Chancellor) to H. Oeftering, 23 Nov. 1954; Oeftering to Blücher, 24 Nov. 1954, B115/3419, BA.

¹⁹⁷ Minutes of the Supervisory Board (VW), 24 Nov. 1954.

¹⁹⁸ Telegram from F. Blücher (Deputy Chancellor) to H. Oeftering, 23 Nov. 1954; Oeftering to Blücher, 24 Nov. 1954, B115/3419, BA.

¹⁹⁹ H. Oeftering to F. Blücher, 27 Nov. 1954 and 17 Jan. 1955, B115/3419, BA; Dr. Rust to L. Erhard, 14 Jan. 1955, B102/76037, BA.

²⁰⁰ Minutes of Supervisory Board (VW), 24 Jan. 1955.

²⁰¹ F. Lindrath to L. Erhard, 10 Sept. 1959, B115/3428, BA.

²⁰² L. Erhard to F. Lindrath, 12 Nov. 1959, B115/3428, BA.

²⁰³ “Notes on a Telephone Conversation Between the Chancellor and the President of the BDA”, 26 June 1959, B115/3428, BA.

²⁰⁴ Olley, “Motor Car Industry in Germany,” BIOS Overall Report No. 21, IWM.

²⁰⁵ Blaich, Fritz, “The Development of the Distribution Sector in the German Car Industry,” in Okochi, A. and Shimokawa, K., eds., The Development of Mass Marketing (Tokyo, 1981)Google Scholar.

²⁰⁶ For a historical analysis of “Fordism” see Steven Tolliday and Jonathan Zeitlin, “Between Fordism and Flexibility,” in Tolliday, Steven and Zeitlin, Jonathan, eds., The Automobile Industry and Its Workers: Between Fordism and Flexibility (Cambridge, 1987)Google Scholar.

²⁰⁷ Nelson, Small Wonder, 272; Wood, VW Beetle, 54.

²⁰⁸ Etzold, H. R., The Beetle: The Chronicles of the People's Car (Newbury Park, Calif., 1988), 6Google Scholar.

²⁰⁹ Nelson, Small Wonder, 272.

²¹⁰ All lovingly and tirelessly catalogued in Etzold, The Beetle.

²¹¹ Minutes of the Working Committee of the Advisory Board, 8 June 1951, B115/3379, BA; Busch, K. W., Strukturwandlungen der westdeutschen automobilindustrie (Berlin, 1966)Google Scholar, Tables.

²¹² Memorandum by Birnbaum for Supervisory Board, 15 July 1955, B115/3379, BA.

²¹³ Busch, Strukturwandlungen, 65–6, 93; Krengel, R., Anlagevennögen, Produktion und Beschäftigung der Industrie im Gebiet der Bundesrepublik Deutschland von 1924 zu 1958 (Berlin, 1958)Google Scholar.

²¹⁴ Busch, Strukturwandlungen, 123; Werner Abelshauser, “Two Kinds of Fordism: On the Differing Roles of the Automobile Industry in the Development of the Two German States,” Paper presented to the Fuji Conference on Business History, Jan. 1994.

²¹⁵ E. Vitger to A. J. Wieland, 12 Oct. 1950, AR 75–62–616, box 2, FMC.

²¹⁶ A. J. Wieland, “A Program for a New Passenger Car to be Produced at Ford Werke AG, Cologne,” 24 Feb. 1951, AR 65–71, box 30, FMC.

²¹⁷ Ford Werke, “Cologne Integration Program,” May 1953, AR 67–13, box 2, FMC.

²¹⁸ A. J. Wieland, “Notes on Germany,” May 1953, AR 67–13, box 1, FMC.

²¹⁹ Minutes of Supervisory Board (VW), 8 Dec. 1955.

²²⁰ Minutes of Supervisory Board (VW), 27 March 1956.

²²¹ Minutes of Supervisory Board (VW), 8 June 1956.

²²² Brenner protested that “[t]he form of the car is no longer discussed.… There are cars, and there are Volkswagens.… and that's it.” Minutes of Supervisory Board (VW), 3 June 1957; Minutes of Supervisory Board (VW), 4 Sept. 1956.

²²³ Minutes of Supervisory Board (VW), 4 Sept. 1956.

²²⁴ USBSS, Report No. 88: FO 371/65114, “Provisional report of reparations and disarmament working party, January 1946.”

²²⁵ Minutes of Supervisory Board, 3 June 1957, VW.

²²⁶ Minutes of Supervisory Board, 25 Nov. 1957 and 16 June 1958, VW.

²²⁷ Minutes of Supervisory Board, 6 June 1958, VW.

²²⁸ Minutes of Supervisory Board, 25 Nov. 1957 and 6 June 1958, VW.

²²⁹ Minutes of Supervisory Board, 22 Jan. 1960 and 17 Nov. 1960, VW.

²³⁰ Minutes and papers of the Working Committee of the Supervisory Board, May 1961, VW.

²³¹ Minutes of Supervisory Board, 3 June 1957; 25 Nov. 1957; 6 June 1958; 13 June 1960. All in VW.

²³² Minutes of Supervisory Board, 22 Jan. 1960, VW.

²³³ Minutes of Supervisory Board, 10 Nov. 1959, VW.

²³⁴ Minutes of Supervisory Board, 4 May 1961, March and April 1961 passim, VW.

²³⁵ Minutes of Supervisory Board, 10 Nov. 1959, VW.

²³⁶ Minutes of Supervisory Board, 10 Nov. 1959, VW; Etzold, The Beetle, 176.

²³⁷ Minutes of Supervisory Board, 13 June 1960, VW.

²³⁸ Nicholls, A. J., Freedom with Responsibility: The Social Market Economy in Germany, 1918–1963 (Oxford, 1994), 359Google Scholar.

²³⁹ On BMW see Monnich, Horst, The BMW Story: A Company in its Time (London, 1991), 427–479Google Scholar; on the wider context of CDU dirigisme see Kuntz, Aline, “Conservatives in Crisis: The Bavarian Christian Social Union and the Ideology of Antimodernism” (Ph.D. diss., Cornell Univ., 1987), 198–201Google Scholar.

²⁴⁰ Bimbaum, “Memorandum for the Ministry of Finance on the Future of Volkswagen,” 13 Oct. 1956, B115/3391, BA.

²⁴¹ Enterprise Letter of the German Industrial Institute, 8 Oct. 1953; Economic Information Service No. 191, B115/3417, BA.

²⁴² L. Westrick to L. Erhard, 19 March 1955, B102/76034, BA.

²⁴³ The Economist, 5 Oct. 1957; F. Novotny, “VW, Aktiengesellschaft und Stiftung,” 4 Oct. 1957, B115/3395, BA.

²⁴⁴ F. Lindrath to Bimbaum, 13 Aug. 1957, B115/3395, BA.

²⁴⁵ F. Lindrath, “Memorandum on a Meeting of ‘CDU Friends’ to Discuss VW,” 19 Aug. 1958, B115/3391, BA; A. Hartmann to Bimbaum, 2 Sept. 1957, B115/3395, BA.

²⁴⁶ Ministry for Economic Property, “Memorandum on Lower Saxony and the Ownership of VW,” 17 March 1958, B115/3394, BA.

²⁴ For an account of the controversy see statement by Minister Ahrens to the Land Niedersachsen Parliament, 2 Dec. 1959, Parliamentary Minutes, 311–322, B115/3391, BA; Reich, Fruits of Fascism, 192.

²⁴⁸ F. Lindrath, “Memorandum on Meeting with ‘CDU Friends,’ “ 19 Aug. 1958; F. Lindrath, “Memorandum on Meeting with Wegman (Lower Saxony Finance Minister),” 12 July 1958, B115/3391, BA.

²⁴⁹ Die Welt, 28 Jan. 1961.

²⁵⁰ Lower Saxony and the Federal Government would place their shares in a jointly run Stiftung which would receive and administer the dividends of the shares, initially being obliged to re-lend the proceeds to the federal and regional governments for five years at a favorable rate. In the long run the proceeds of the Stiftung were to be used to endow academic and technical research. The Stiftung would be jointly controlled by Lower Saxony and Federal Government, but, unlike the original SPD proposal, the Stiftung would not be the actual manager of VW but a body profiting from the operations of the company. Ministry of Finance, “Memorandum for Chancellor's Discussions with Ministers of Lower Saxony,” 13 Oct. 1959, B115/3391, BA.

²⁵¹ F. Novotny to Bimbaum, 4 Oct. 1957, B115/3395, BA.

²⁵² DM 457m in 1958—plus VW's notoriously large secret reserves—compared with Ford DM 46m and Opel DM 195m.

²⁵³ Dr. Elmendorff to Bimbaum, 8 April 1960, B115/3393, BA; Minutes of Cabinet Meeting, 29 June 1960, B115/338, BA. There was a large excess demand for the shares and their value rose sharply following the flotation bringing windfall profits.

²⁵⁴ Minutes of Supervisory Board, 10 June 1960, VW.

²⁵⁵ Minutes of Supervisory Board, 4 May 1961, VW.

²⁵⁶ Brumlop, Eva and Jürgens, Ulrich, “Rationalisation and Industrial Relations in the West German Auto Industry: A Case Study of Volkswagen,” in Jacobi, O. et al. , eds., Technological Change: Rationalization and Industrial Relations (London, 1986)Google Scholar.

²⁵⁷ Tolliday, Steven W., “From ‘Beetle Monoculture’ to the ‘German Model:’ The Transformation of Volkswagen, 1967–1991,” Business and Economic History 24, (Winter 1995)Google Scholar; Alfred Thimm, “Decision-making at Volkswagen, 1972–75,” Columbia Journal of World Business (Spring 1976).

²⁵⁸ Smith, Eric Owen, The German Economy (London, 1994), 464–470CrossRefGoogle Scholar; R. A. Hawkins, “Privatization in West Germany, 1957–1991,” NatWest Bank Quarterly Review (November 1991); Denton, G., Forsyth, M., and MacLennon, M., Economic Planning and Politics: Britain, France and Germany (London, 1968), 66–68Google Scholar.

²⁵⁹ For an excellent summary see Dumke, Rolf H., “Reassessing the Wirtschaftswunder: Reconstruction and Postwar Growth in West Germany in an International Context,” Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 52, (1990)Google Scholar; the other crucial contribution is Abelshauser, Die Wirtschaftgeschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.

²⁶⁰ Borchardt, Knut and Buchheim, Christopher, “Die Wirkungen der Marshallplan Hilfe in Schlüsselbranchen der deutschen Wirtschaft,” Vierteljarhrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 35, (July 1987)Google Scholar; Stokes, Divide and Prosper, 151.

²⁶¹ Abelshauser, Werner, Wirtschaft in Westdeutschland, 1945–1948 (Stuttgart, 1975)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Borchardt, Knut, Perspectives on Modern German Economic History and Policy (Cambridge, 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dumke, “Reassessing the Wirtschaftswunder” Wolf, Holger C., “The Lucky Miracle: Germany, 1945–51,” in Dornbusch, Rudiger, Nolling, Wilhelm and Layard, Richard, eds., Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today (Cambridge Mass., 1993)Google Scholar; Wallich, H., Mainsprings of the German Revival (New Haven, 1955)Google Scholar; Denison, Edward F., Why Growth Rates Differ: Postwar Experience in Nine Western Countries (Washington, D.C., 1967)Google Scholar.

²⁶² Abramovitz, Moses, Thinking About Economic Growth: And Other Essays on Economic Growth and Welfare (Cambridge, 1989)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁶³ Sohmen, “Competition and Growth”; Giersch et al., Fading Miracle.

²⁶⁴ Abelshauser, Wirtschaft in Westdeutschland, 82; “Ansätze korporativer Marktwirtschaft in der Koreakrise der frühen fünfziger Jahre,” Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 30, (1982)Google Scholar; Reich, Fruits of Fascism; see also Kramer, West German Economy, 166–73; Giersch et al., Fading Miracle, 101–5.

²⁶⁵ Berghahn, Volker, The Americanization of West German Industry, 1945–73 (Leamington Spa, 1986), 4, 275–82Google Scholar.

²⁶⁶ A landmark work is Nicholls, Freedom with Responsibility; Berghahn, Volker, “Ideas into Politics: The Case of Ludwig Erhard,” in Bullen, R. J., von Strandmann, H. Pogge, and Polonsky, A. B., eds., Ideas into Politics: Aspects of European History, 1880–1950 (London, 1984)Google Scholar.

²⁶⁷ On these issues see: Braun, Hans-Joachim, The German Economy in the Twentieth Century: The German Reich and the Federal Republic (London, 1990), 178–181CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Roseman, Mark, Recasting the Ruhr, 1945–1958: Manpower, Economic Recovery and Labour Relations (Oxford, 1992)Google Scholar; Stokes, Opting for Oil, passim (the synthetic rubber case is covered on 203–5); Kramer, West German Economy, 203–4; Stolper, Wolfgang F. and Roskamp, Karl W., “Planning a Free Economy: Germany, 1945–60,” in Richter, R., ed., Currency and Economic Reform: West Germany After World War Two: Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft 135 (1979)Google Scholar; Berghahn, Americanization, 291; the fullest account of manoeuvres on the anti-cartel bill is in Robert, A., Konzentrationspolitik in der Bundesrepublik (Berlin, 1976)Google Scholar.

²⁶⁸ Edwards, Jeremy and Fischer, Klaus, Banks, Finance, and Investment in Germany (Cambridge, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁶⁹ Nicholls, Freedom with Responsibility, 284, 234–47, 270–2; Milward, Alan S., The European Rescue of the Nation State (London, 1992), 198–9Google Scholar; Stokes, Opting for Oil, 103–5, also notes the importance of such conflicts in the chemical industry.

²⁷⁰ This era of transition is well captured in Berghahn, Americanization at the national level and by Stokes, Opting for Oil at the sectoral level.

²⁷¹ Monnich, The BMW Story, 427–30, 466, 475–9.