Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-75dct Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-07T00:26:05.963Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Mexico's Business and Entrepreneurship in the Era of Nationalism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 June 2022

Abstract

This article studies the evolution of business in Mexico from the Revolution (1910–1920) to the early 1980s, a period when the state played a major role in the economy and undertook nationalistic policies. It explores the development of distinctive features that characterize business in Latin America: the importance of family-owned diversified business groups and immigrants, the prominence of illegal business, the central role of the entrepreneur, and the greater need to forge ties with government agents for company success. We argue that while some of these features had existed earlier, during this era they took the form that has prevailed until the present day.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © 2022 The President and Fellows of Harvard College

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

The authors wish to thank Geoffrey Jones, Walter Friedman, and three anonymous referees for their comments and suggestions.

References

1 Colpan, Asli M., Hikino, Takashi, and Lincoln, James R., eds., The Oxford Handbook of Business Groups (Oxford, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Other studies show that the family-business group was also widely used in some advanced Western countries. Jones, Geoffrey, Merchants to Multinationals (Oxford, 2000)Google Scholar; Jones, “Britain: Global Legacy and Domestic Persistence,” in Business Groups in the West: Origins, Evolution, and Resilience, ed. Asli M. Colpan and Takashi Hikino (New York, 2018), 123–46.

2 Schneider, Ben Ross, “Hierarchical Market Economies and Varieties of Capitalism in Latin America,” Journal of Latin American Studies 41, no. 3 (2009): 553–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Barbero, María Inés, “Business Groups in Argentina during the Export-Led Growth (1870–1914),” in Entrepreneurship and Growth: An International Historical Perspective, ed. Tortella, Gabriel and Quiroga, Gloria (Houndmills, U.K., 2013), 90Google Scholar; Barbero, María Inés and Puig, Nuria, “Business Groups around the World: An Introduction,” Business History 58, no. 1 (2016): 629CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 Austin, Gareth, Dávila, Carlos, and Jones, Geoffrey, “The Alternative Business History: Business in Emerging Markets,” Business History Review 91, no. 3 (2017): 557CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 María Inés Barbero, Multinacionales latinoamericanas en perspectiva comparada: Teoría e Historia, Serie Cátedra Corona no. 23 (Bogotá, 2014).

6 The terms “entrepreneur” and “entrepreneurship” are subject to a considerable debate. In this essay we understand “entrepreneur” to refer to someone who identifies a commercial opportunity and then organizes a venture or system to implement it so that it makes money. The entrepreneur will usually invest capital in the business and take on the risks associated with the investment. We understand entrepreneurship as the resource and process whereby individuals utilize opportunities in the market through the creation of new business firms. The concept of the entrepreneurial family refers to the family as an institution, or social structure, that can both drive and constrain entrepreneurial activities.

7 Austin, Dávila, and Jones, “Alternative Business History,” 544; Paloma Fernández Pérez and Andrea Lluch, eds., Familias Empresarias y Grandes Empresas familiares en América Latina y España: Una visión de largo plazo (Madrid, 2015).

8 Austin, Dávila, and Jones, “Alternative Business History,” 548–49.

9 Austin, Dávila, and Jones, 551–52; Stephen Haber, ed., Crony Capitalism and Economic Growth in Latin America (Stanford, 2002); Paxman, Andrew and Galindo, José, “El capitalismo de cuates en perspectiva global,” ISTOR 17, no. 68 (2017): 36Google Scholar; Galindo, José, Ethnic Entrepreneurs, Crony Capitalism, and the Making of the Franco-Mexican Elite (Tuscaloosa, AL, 2021), 5581Google Scholar.

10 Austin, Dávila and Jones, “Alternative Business History,” 537, 558.

11 Jones, Geoffrey, “Globalization,” in Oxford Handbook of Business History, ed. Jones, Geoffrey and Zeitlin, Jonathan (Oxford, 2015), 147–49Google Scholar.

12 On the “first global economy,” see Jones, “Globalization,” 143–47.

13 Riguzzi, Paolo, “México y la Economía Internacional,” in Historia económica general de México, ed. Kuntz, Sandra (Mexico City, 2010), 380–81Google Scholar.

14 Marichal, Carlos and Riguzzi, Paolo, “Bancos y banqueros europeos en México, 1864–1933,” in México y la economía atlántica (siglos XVIII–XIX), ed. Kuntz, Sandra and Pietschmann, H. (Mexico City, 2006), 208–9Google Scholar.

15 Aurora Gómez-Galvarriato, Globalización y nacionalismo: la banca extranjera en México 1864–1933, Serie Cátedra Corona No. 27 (Bogotá, 2017), 29–35.

16 “Plaza de México,” El Economista Mexicano, 4 Apr. 1910, 63–65; Iñárritu, Alfredo Lagunilla, La Bolsa en el Mercado de Valores de México y su Ambiente Empresarial, 1895–1933 (Mexico City, 1973), 211–13Google Scholar.

17 Haber, Stephen, “Financial Markets and Industrial Development: A Comparative Study of Governmental Regulation, Financial Innovation, and Industrial Structure in Brazil and Mexico, 1840–1930,” in How Latin America Fell Behind: Essays on the Economic Histories of Brazil and Mexico, 1800–1940, ed. Haber, Stephen (Stanford, 1997), 146–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 Saragoza, Alex M., The Monterrey Elite and the Mexican State (Austin, 1988), 4448Google Scholar.

19 Buchenau, Jürgen, Tools of Progress: A German Merchant Family in Mexico City, 1865–Present (Alburquerque, 2004), 30-37Google Scholar; Mentz, Brígida von, “Empresas y empresarios alemanes en México, 1821–1945,” Jahrbuch für Geschichte Lateinamerikas 25, no. 1 (1988): 132Google Scholar; Lida, Clara, ed., Una inmigración privilegiada: Comerciantes, empresarios y profesionales en México en los siglos XIX y XX (Madrid, 1994)Google Scholar.

20 Gómez-Galvarriato, Aurora, Industry and Revolution: Social and Economic Change in the Orizaba Valley, Mexico (Cambridge, MA, 2013), 2029CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Galindo, Ethnic Entrepreneurs, 17–54.

21 Saragoza, Monterrey Elite, 56–59; Marichal, Carlos, “De la banca privada a la gran banca: Antonio Basagoiti en México y España, 1880–1911,” Historia Mexicana 48, no. 4 (1999): 767–93Google Scholar.

22 Katz, Friedrich, The Secret War in Mexico (Chicago, 1981), 11Google Scholar.

23 Musacchio, Aldo and Read, Ian, “Bankers, Industrialists, and Their Cliques: Elite Networks in Mexico and Brazil during Early Industrialization,” Enterprise and Society 8, no. 4 (2007): 842–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 Cerutti, Mario and Barragán, Juan Ignacio, John F. Brittingham y la industria en México (1859–1940) (Mexico City, 2018), 2745Google Scholar.

25 Coatsworth, John, Los Orígenes del Atraso (Mexico City, 1990), 117Google Scholar.

26 Minutes of the Shareholders Assembly, Cervecería Cuauhtémoc, 6 July 1914, Archivo de la Cervecería Cuauhtémoc-Moctezuma, Monterrey, Nuevo Léon, Mexico (hereafter ACCM).

27 Cerutti and Barragán, John F. Brittingham, 51–52, 88–94.

28 Losses were obtained from Inventario General de la Cía. Cervecera de Chihuahua, SA, “Resumen de Devolución y Nota de Refacciones, no. 1,” 30 Dec. 1917, vol. 355, file 1234, Archivo Manuel Gómez Morin, Mexico City, Mexico (hereafter AMGM).

29 Minutes of the Board of Directors, Cervecería Cuauhtémoc, 14 Mar. 1914, ACCM.

30 Gómez-Galvarriato, Aurora, “El desempeño de Fundidora Monterrey durante el Porfiriato,” in La Historia de las Grandes Empresas en México 1850–1913, ed. Marichal, Carlos and Cerutti, Mario (Mexico City, 1998), 201–43Google Scholar.

31 Gómez-Galvarriato, Industry and Revolution, 116–77.

32 Galindo, Ethnic Entrepreneurs, 107–12.

33 María Eugenia Romero Sotelo, “Familia Legorreta,” in 200 Emprendedores Mexicanos: La Construcción de una Nación, vol. 2, ed. Leonor Ludlow, 41–47.

34 José Luis García Ruíz, “Antonio Basagoiti Arteta,” n.d., Asociación Española de Historia Económica, accessed June 2021, https://www.aehe.es/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ANTONIO-BASAGOITI-ARTETA.pdf.

35 This can be seen in the minutes of the Board of Directors of Cervecería Cuauhtémoc for the years 1913, 1914, and 1915, ACCM.

36 Minutes of the Board of Directors,Cervecería Cuauhtémoc, 10 Feb. and 27 Mar. 1915, ACCM.

37 Cerutti and Barragán, John F. Brittingham, 39–41, 93–97.

38 Galvarriato, Aurora Gómez and Recio, Gabriela, “The Indispensable Service of Banks: Commercial Transactions, Industry and Banking in Revolutionary Mexico,” Enterprise & Society 8, no. 1 (2007): 68105CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

39 Gómez-Galvarriato, Globalización y nacionalismo, 43–44.

40 Jiménez, Grisell Ortega, “Esperanza Iris, una aproximación a su sobresaliente trayectoria como empresaria teatral, 1896–1918,” in Negocios, empresarios y entornos políticos en México, 1827–1958, ed. Palacios, Marco (Mexico City, 2015), 149–84Google Scholar.

41 Paxman, Andrew, En busca del Señor Jenkins (Mexico City, 2016)Google Scholar.

42 These figures are estimates based on Joel Álvarez de la Borda, Los orígenes de la industria petrolera en México 1900–1925 (Mexico City, 2005), Tables II.2 and II.3, 64, 66.

43 Garner, Paul, British Lions and Mexican Eagles: Business, Politics and Empire in the Career of Weetman Pearson in Mexico, 1889–1919 (Stanford, 2011)Google Scholar; Brown, Jonathan, “Domestic Politics and Foreign Investment: British Development of Mexican Petroleum, 1889–1911,” Business History Review 61, no. 3 (1987): 387416CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

44 In 1896, with a population of 70 million, the United States imported approximately 76,000 pounds of opiates. Germany, a country with a population (60 million) of a similar size, imported 17,000 pounds. Benjamin T. Smith, The Dope: The Real History of the Mexican Drug Trade (New York, 2021), 62.

45 Smith, 35–36; Recio, Gabriela, “Drugs and Alcohol: US Prohibition and the Origin of the Drug Trade in Mexico, 1910–1930,” Journal of Latin American Studies 34, no. 1 (2002): 2223CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

46 A pulquería is a type of tavern that specializes in selling pulque, an alcoholic beverage made from the fermented sap of the agave plant.

47 Recio, “Drugs and Alcohol,” 29–30.

48 Smith, The Dope, 61.

49 Several letters, 812.114/Narcotics/12, 13, and 15, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC (hereafter NARA).

50 Several letters, 1916–1920, 812.114/Narcotics/15, NARA.

51 Walter F. Boyle, Mexicali Consul, to the Secretary of State, 28 Mar. 1919, 812.114/Liquors/8, NARA.

52 Smith, The Dope, 52.

53 Letter from L.G. Nutt to the Department of State, 29 Nov. 1924, 12.114/Narcotics/14 and Department of State to the Treasury Department, 12 May 1928, 812.114/Narcotics/132, NARA. The cities that are mentioned are Caborca, Oquitoa, Pitiquito, and the Yaqui and Mayo Valleys in Sonora; Mazatlán and Culiacán in Sinaloa; and Tamazula in Durango.

54 Smith, The Dope, 55–58, 128.

55 Gómez Estrada, José Alfredo, Gobierno y casinos: El origen de la riqueza de Abelardo L. Rodríguez (Mexico City and Tijuana, 2007), 151–55, 160Google Scholar.

56 Del Angel, Gustavo A., “The Nexus between Business Groups and Banks: Mexico, 1932–1982,” Business History 58, no. 1 (2016): 118–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hamilton, Nora, The Limits of State Autonomy: Post-Revolutionary Mexico (Princeton, 1982), 299CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

57 Marcela Mijares Lara, “Juan Andreu Almazán y la Compañía Constructora Anáhuac: Negocios y política durante la posrevolución (1927–1932),” in Palacios, Negocios, 234, 240–41, 243–44.

58 “En legítima defensa,” El Universal, 23 Nov. 1952, cited in Mijares Lara, “Juan Andreu Almazán,” 230, our translation.

59 Banco de Londres y México to Banco de París y de los Países Bajos, 1 Apr. 1925 and 6 Mar. 1926, vol. 322, file 1129, AMGM.

60 The average value of its share was obtained from several issues of El Economista Mexicano and the Boletín Financiero y Minero.

61 Lagunilla Iñárritu, La Bolsa, 233.

62 Cleveland, Harold van B. and Huertas, Thomas F., Citibank, 1812–1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1985), 123Google Scholar.

63 Gómez-Galvarriato, Globalización y nacionalismo, 53–61.

64 Hamilton, Limits of State Autonomy, 317–20.

65 Jorge A. Orozco Zuarth, “Raúl Bailleres y su imperio económico” (BA thesis, UAM-Azcapotzalco, Mexico City, 1983).

66 Del Angel, “Nexus,” 118; Hamilton, Limits of State Autonomy, 294–97.

67 Carral, José, “La banca extranjera y la estatización de la banca,” in La nacionalización bancaria, 25 años después: La historia contada por sus protagonistas, vol. 2, ed. Rugarcía, Amparo Espinosa and Sánchez, Enrique Cárdenas (Mexico City, 2008), 135, 139–40Google Scholar.

68 Ley de Expropiación, Diario Oficial de la Federación, 25 Nov. 1936, Articles 9, 10, and 20.

69 Galarza, Ernesto, La industria eléctrica en México (Mexico City, 1941), 26, 77Google Scholar.

70 Ejidos were a form of communal property on which land was distributed. Wolfe, Mikael D., Watering the Revolution: An Environmental and Technological History of Agrarian Reform in Mexico (Durham, 2017), 44, 121–23Google Scholar; Aguilar, Luis Aboites, El Norte entre Algodones: Población, trabajo agrícola y optimismo en México, 1930–1970 (Mexico City, 2013)Google Scholar.

71 Smith, Benjamin T., “The Rise and Fall of Narcopopulism: Drugs, Politics and Society in Sinaloa, 1930–1980,” Journal of the Study of Radicalism 7, no. 2 (2013): 127CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

72 Smith, The Dope, 124.

73 Smith, 180, 326–27.

74 Smith, 115.

75 Smith, 137–38, 149–52, 287.

76 Cárdenas, Enrique, El largo curso de la economía mexicana: De 1780 a nuestros días (Mexico City, 2015), 499500Google Scholar.

77 Bohrisch, Alexander and König, Wolfgang, La política mexicana sobre inversiones extranjeras (Mexico City, 1968), 3335CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

78 Silva, Ricardo Méndez, El régimen jurídico de las inversiones extranjeras en México (Mexico City, 1969), 112–16Google Scholar; Garza, Oscar Ramos, México ante la inversión extranjera (Mexico City, 1974), 129–30Google Scholar.

79 “Carlos Trouyet: El gran vendedor (1903–1971),” Expansión, 20 Sept. 2011, https://expansion.mx/expansion/2011/09/14/carlos-trouyet-el-gran-vendedor-1903-1971.

80 Hamilton, Limits of State Autonomy, 298; Bennett, Douglas C. and Sharpe, Kenneth E., Transnational Corporations vs. the State: The Political Economy of the Mexican Auto Industry (Princeton, 1985), 51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Carlos Trouyet.”

81 Moreno, Julio, Yankee Don't Go Home! Mexican Nationalism, American Business Culture, and the Shaping of Modern Mexico, 1920–1950 (Chapel Hill, 2003), 172206Google Scholar.

82 Vernon, Raymond, The Dilemma of Mexico's Development (Cambridge, MA, 1963), 113Google Scholar.

83 Vernon, 9.

84 Paxman, En busca del señor Jenkins, 317, 318, 343, 349, 367, 428.

85 Clouthier, Manuel, “La Industria Paraestatal de Fertilizantes,” in Memoria del Foro de Consulta Popular para la Planeación y la Empresa Pública, ed. Instituto Nacional de Administración Pública (Mexico City, 1983), 761Google Scholar.

86 Galvarriato, Aurora Gómez, “La construcción del milagro mexicano: el Instituto Mexicano de Investigaciones Tecnológicas, el Banco de México, y la Armour Research Foundation,” Historia Mexicana 69, no. 3 (2020): 1247–309CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

87 Bennett and Sharpe, Transnational Corporations, 100, 141, 142.

88 Cavazos, Gabriela Recio, Don Eugenio Garza Sada: Ideas, acción, legado (Monterrey, 2017)Google Scholar.

89 Roberto Garza Sada to Manuel Gómez Morin, 25 Feb. 1942and 30 July 1942, vol. 234, file 747, AMGM.

90 Roberto Garza Sada to Manuel Gómez Morin, 30 July 30, 1942; Manuel Gómez Morin to Roberto Garza Sada, 3 Aug. 1942 and 21 Oct. 1942, vol. 234, file 747, AMGM.

91 Juan Celada Salmón, inventor of the “Hyl process”, interview by Gabriela Recio Cavazos, 13 May 2014; United States Patent Office, Patent number 2,900,247, “Method of Making Sponge Iron” filed 5 Aug. 1957, granted 18 Aug. 1959.

92 Hibino, Barbara, “Cervecería Cuauhtémoc: A Case Study of Technological and Industrial Development in Mexico,” Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 8, no. 1 (1992): 40CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

93 Claudia Fernández and Andrew Paxman, El Tigre: Emilio Azcárraga y su imperio Televisa (Mexico City, 2013).

94 Chías, José Luis, “Desarrollo histórico de la aviación comercial mexicana,” Investigaciones Geográfica 1, no. 11 (1981): 263–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

96 Smith, The Dope, 137–38, 149–52, 287.

97 Smith, 221.

98 Smith, 180, 326–27.

99 Lomnitz, Larissa Adler and Lizaur, Marisol Pérez, A Mexican Elite Family, 1820–1980: Kinship, Class, Culture (Princeton, 1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

100 Cerutti and Barragán, John F. Brittingham, 47–49, 201.

101 Gauss, Susan, Made in Mexico: Regions, Nations, and the State in the Rise of Mexican Industrialism, 1920s–1940s (University Park, PA, 2011)Google Scholar.

102 Manuel Gómez Morin to Gastón Descombes, 21 Oct. 1935, vol. 453, file 1475, AMGM, cited in Gabriela Recio Cavazos, El abogado y la empresa: Una mirada al despacho de Manuel Gómez Morin, 1920–1940 (Mexico City, 2017), 192.

103 Raymond Vernon was probably one of the first to analyze business groups in Mexico, at the end of the 1950s and early 1960s. See Vernon, Dilemma of Mexico's Development. For a more recent discussion on business groups, see Del Angel, “Nexus,” 111–28; Mario Cerutti, “Grandes empresas y familias empresariales en México,” in Fernández Pérez and Lluch, Familias Empresarias, 153–88; Taeko Hoshino, “Business Groups in Mexico,” in Colpan, Hikino, and Lincoln, Oxford Handbook of Business Groups, 15–66; Ross Schneider, “Hierarchical Market Economies,” 553–75; Garrido, Celso, “El liderazgo de las grandes empresas industriales mexicanas,” in Grandes empresas y grupos industriales latinoamericanos, ed. Peres, Wilson (Mexico City, 1998), 397472Google Scholar; and Ramos, Gonzalo Castañeda, La empresa mexicana y su gobierno corporativo: Antecedentes y desafíos para el siglo XXI (Puebla, 1998), 6998Google Scholar, 213–68.

104 This can be seen in the correspondence between Manuel Gómez Morin and the Garza Sada family, especially in Esquema, n.d., vol. 486, file 1520, AMGM. See also Cavazos, Gabriela Recio, “Lawyers’ Contribution to Business Development in Early Twentieth-Century Mexico,” Enterprise and Society 5, no. 2 (2004): 301–4Google Scholar.

105 Minutes of the Board,Cervecería Cuauhtémoc, 24 May 1935, AMGM, cited in Recio Cavazos, El abogado y la empresa, 203, our translation.

106 VISA, Memorandum que sugiere la reconsideración de los proyectos primitivos, 3 Mar. 1936, vol. 468, file 1520, AMGM, cited in Recio Cavazos, El abogado y la empresa, 204.

107 Del Angel, “Nexus,” 119.

108 Del Angel, 119–20; Orozco Zuarth, “Raúl Bailleres.”

109 María Angeles Cortés Basurto, “Cimientos del imperio de la familia Guggenheim en México, 1890–1905,” in Palacios, Negocios, 105–48.

110 “Historia,” Grupo México, accessed 20 Jan. 2021, https://www.gmexico.com/Pages/Historia.aspx.

111 Manuel Rubio, “La industrialización de la harina de maíz,” in Maíz-Tortilla: Políticas y Alternativas, ed. Gerardo Torres Salcido and Marcel Morales Ibarra (Mexico City, 1997), 131–40; Alberto Bello, “Roberto González Barrera: El Banquero Improbable,” in Los Amos de México, ed. Jorge Zepeda Patterson (Mexico City, 2007), 387–421.

112 Gruma S.A.B. de C.V., Annual Report, 2020, 29, accessed 20 Jan. 2021, https://www.gruma.com/media/704751/gruma_reporte_anual_2020_-_versi_n_final_con_anexos.pdf.

113 Martha Díaz de Kuri and Lourdes Macluf, De Líbano a México: Crónica de un pueblo emigrante (Mexico City, 1997); Guadalupe Zárate Miguel, “Integración económica e ideológica de los judíos en México, 1920–1930,” Revista de Humanidades: Tecnológico de Monterrey 9 (2000): 83–102.

114 Carlos Herrero, Braulio Iriarte: De la Tahona al Holding internacional cervecero, Cuadernos de Historia Empresarial (Mexico City, 2002); Alicia Ortiz Rivera, Juan Sánchez Navarro, Biografía de un testigo del México del siglo XX (Mexico City, 1997).

115 Edgar Rogelio Ramírez Solís and Verónica Iliana Baños Monroy, “From Family Firms to MultiMexicans in the Beer Industry: Grupo Modelo and Cuauhtémoc Moctezuma,” in Building Multinationals in Emerging Markets, ed. Alvaro Cuervo Cazurra and Miguel A. Montoya (Cambridge, U.K., 2018), 223.

116 Cherem, Silvia, Al grano: Vida y visión de los fundadores de Bimbo (Mexico City, 2008)Google Scholar.

117 Lázaro, Javier Moreno, “Los asturianos y la modernización comercial en México en el siglo XX: Los Arango,” Memoria del XV Congreso Internacional de Investigación en Ciencias Administrativas 4, no. 212 (2011): 3367Google Scholar; Cerutti, Mario and Sada, Eva Rivas, “El agrocomercio como escalón a las grandes cadenas urbanas: Ángel Losada Gómez y la construcción del Grupo Gigante (1923–2004),” in De la colonia a la globalización: Empresarios cántabros en México, ed. Martín, Rafael Domínguez and Cerutti, Mario (Cantabria, Spain, 2006)Google Scholar; Krauze, Enrique, Walmart de México: Una historia de valor y compromiso (Mexico City, 2008)Google Scholar.

118 Osorno, Diego Enrique, Slim: Biografía política del mexicano más rico del mundo (Mexico City, 2015), 141Google Scholar; Raciel Trejo, Carlos Slim: Vida y obra, Quién es quién (Mexico City, 2012); Martínez, José, Carlos Slim: Retrato Inédito (Mexico City, 2002)Google Scholar; “Biography,” Carlos Slim Helú website, accessed 13 Feb. 2018, http://www.carlosslim.com/biografia_ing.html.

119 Camp, Roderic Ai, Entrepreneurs and Politics in Twentieth-Century Mexico (New York, 1989), 2426Google Scholar.

120 Menéndez, Jorge Fernández, Nadie supo nada: La verdadera historia del asesinato de Eugenio Garza Sada (Mexico City, 2019)Google Scholar.

121 Recio Cavazos, Don Eugenio, 22–23, 305.

122 Recio Cavazos, 306.

123 Camp, Entrepreneurs and Politics, 29.

124 Marichal, Carlos, “Historia de las empresas e historia económica de México: avances y perspectivas,” in Los estudios de empresarios y empresas: Una perspectiva internacional, ed. Basave, Jorge and Hernández, Marcela (Mexico, 2007), 71100Google Scholar.

125 Wise, Raúl Delgado and Mendoza, Rubén del Pozo, Minería, Estado y gran capital en México (Mexico City, 2002), 1923Google Scholar.

126 Toledo, Daniel and Zapata, Francisco, Una historia de la industria siderúrgica integrada en México (Mexico City, 1999)Google Scholar; Ávila Juárez, José Oscar, Acero, nacionalismo y neoliberalismo en México: Historia de la Siderúrgica Lázaro Cárdenas-Las Truchas, S.A. (Querétaro, 2011)Google Scholar.

127 Camp, Entrepreneurs and Politics, 28–29.

128 Graciela Márquez, “Evolución y Estructura del PIB, 1921–2010,” in Kuntz, Historia económica general, 553; INEGI, Estadísticas Históricas de México, vol. 1 (Mexico City, 1999), 3.

129 Schneider, Ben Ross, “Economic Liberalization and Corporate Governance: The Resilience of Business Groups in Latin America,” Comparative Politics 40, no. 4 (2008): 379–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar.