1 Cf.Bon, A., La Morée Franque, Recherches historiques, topographiques et archéologiques sur la principauté d’Achaïe (1205-1430) (Paris 1969) 407-47Google Scholar; Andrews, K., Castles of the Morea (Princeton 1953) 11-89Google Scholar; Kontogiannis, N. D., ‘Κάστρα και οχυρώσεις στην Μεσσηνία κατά τους μεσαιωνικούς και νεώτερους χρόνους’, Πρακτικά του Στ’ Διεθνούς Συνεδρίον Πελοποννησιακών Σπουδών, Τρίπολις 24-29 Σεπτεμβρίου 2000, II (Athens 2001-2002) 521-45Google Scholar; Ενετοί και Ιωαννίτες, δίκτυα οχυρωματικής αρχιτεκτονικής, πεψαματική ενέργεια Archi-med (Athens 2001) 62-85.

2 For e.g., see Cooper, F. A. (ed.), Houses of the Morea: Vernacular Architecture of the Northwest Peloponnesos (1205-1955). Σπίτια του Μορέα: παραδοσιακή αρχιτεκτονική της Βορειοδυτικής Πελοποννήσου (1205-1955) (Athens 2002)Google Scholar; Jameson, M.H., Runnels, C.N., van Andel, T.H., A Greek Countryside: the Southern Argolid from Prehistory to the Present Day (Stanford 1994)Google Scholar; Mee, C., Forbes, H. (eds.), A Rough and Rocky place: the Landscape and Settlement History of the Methana Peninsula, Greece.-Results of the Methana Project (Liverpool 1997)Google Scholar. Also, Morrisson, C., ‘L’ouverture des marchés après 1204: un aspect positif de la IVe croisade?’, in Laiou, A. (ed.), Urbs Capta, the Fourth Crusade and its Consequences (Paris 2005) 229 Google Scholar.

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4 McDonald, W. A., Coulson, W. D. E. and Rosser, J. (eds.), Excavations at Nichoria in Southwest Greece, 111: Dark Age and Byzantine Occupation (Minneapolis 1983) 351ffGoogle Scholar.

5 Kontogiannis, N., ‘Excavation of a 13th century church near Vasilitsi, southern Messenia’, Hesperia 77 (2008) 497–537 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Longnon, J., Topping, P., Documents sur le régime des terres dans la principauté de Morée au XlVe siècle (Paris 1969) 67–115 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gerstel, , ‘Medieval Messenia’, 229-33Google Scholar; Topping, P., ‘The post-classical documents’, in McDonald, and Rapp, (eds.), The Minnesota Messenia Expedition, 64–70 Google Scholar.

7 Sigalos, E., Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece, BAR International Series 1291 (Oxford 2004) 118ffGoogle Scholar.

8 Zarinebaf, F., Bennet, J., Davis, J. L., A Historical and Economic Geography of Ottoman Greece, the Southwestern Morea in the 18^th Century (Athens, 2005) 49ffGoogle Scholar.

9 Lee, W., ‘Pylos Regional Archaeological Project, Part IV: change and the human landscape in a modern Greek village in Messenia’, Hesperia 70 (2001) 49–98 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Δοκίμιο για την οχορωζική στο Βυζάντιο, о Βορειοελλαδικός χώρος 4^oς—15^ooς• ca., Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού, Ώρες Βυζαντίου, Έργα και Ημέρες στο Βυζάντιο, Αθήνα-Θεσσαλονίκη-Μυστράς 2001 (Athens 2001) 63-8 [catalogue entry: N. Bakirtzis and F. Oraiopoulos].

11 For a general historic account of the period, see Miller, W., The Latins in the Levant, a History of Frankish Greece (1204-1566) (London 1908) 36–40, 50-65, 86-90, 98-102, 113-8, 120-31, 145-8, 161-4, 177-8, etc.Google Scholar; Lock, P., The Franks in the Aegean, 1204-1500 (New York 1995) 73–95, 127-34Google Scholar.

12 For the mercantile policies of the Venetian Republic and the naval roads that passed through the coast of Messenia see Nanetti, A., ‘Βενετία και Πελοπόννησος’, in H Πελοπόννησος, Χαρτογραφία και Ιστορία. 16^ος-18^ος’”• αιώνας (Athens 2006) 27–31 Google Scholar.

13 Hodgetts, C., Lock, P., ‘Some village fortifications in the Venetian Peloponnese’, in Lock, P., Sanders, G. D. R. (eds.), The Archaeology of Medieval Greece (Oxford 1996) 77-8Google Scholar; Thiriet, F., La Romanie Vénitienne au moyen âge, Le développement et l’exploitation du domaine colonial vénitien (Xll-Xve siècles) (Paris 1959) 86-7, n.l Google Scholar; Nanetti, , ‘Βενετία και Πελοπόννησος’, 38, 40-1Google Scholar. For the text of the treaty, see Fr.Tafel, G. L., Thomas, G.M., Urkunden zur älteren Handels— und Staatsgeschichte der Republik Yenedig (Vienna 1856) 96–100 Google Scholar; Nanetti, A., Il patto con Geoffroy de Villehardovin per il Peloponneso 1209 (Rome 2009)Google Scholar.

14 Hodgetts, and Lock, , ‘Some village fortifications’, 79–80 Google Scholar; Nanetti, , ‘Βενετία και Πελοπόννησος’, 41-2Google Scholar.

15 Schreiner, P., Die Byzantinischen Kleincbroniken (Vienna 1975) no. 34: 279-80, no. 37: 301, no. 38: 306Google Scholar.

16 The Chronicle of Morea, To Χρονικόν τον Μορέως, a history in political verse relating the establishment of feudalism in Greece by the Franks in the thirteenth century, ed. Schmitt, J. (London 1904), vv 1690-7Google Scholar.

17 For a short description and historic account of the city during the Ottoman period, see Papathanaso-poulos, G., Papathanasopoulos, Th., nòL•ç-TlOlia, Οδοιπορικό στοχώρο και στο χρόνο (Athens 2000) 48–62 Google Scholar; Bennet, J., Davis, J. L., Harlan, D.K., ‘The Fortress of Anavarin-i cedid’, in Zarinebaf, , Bennet, , Davis, , A Historical and Economic Geography of Ottoman Greece, 241-64Google Scholar.

18 For e.g., Sathas, K.N., Μνημεία Ελληνικής Ιστορίας. Monumenta Hellenicae Históriáé. Documents inédits relatives à l’histoire de la Grèce au moyen âge, 9 vols, (Venice and Paris 1880-96)Google Scholar; Thiriet, F., Régestes des Délibérations du Sénat de Venise concernant la Romanie, 3 vols, (Paris—The Hague 1958-61)Google Scholar; Hodgetts, Ch., The Colonies of Coron and Modon under Venetian Administration, 1204-1400 (London 1974)Google Scholar; Nanetti, A., Documenta Veneta Coroni & Methoni Rogata, I, pars prima (Athens 1999)Google Scholar; idem, Documenta Veneta Coroni & Methoni Rogata, I, pars secunda (Athens 2007).

19 Travellers’ accounts concerning the castle of Methoni are collected in Foutakis, P., Γροαπές και εικονογραφικές μαρτνρίες, μορφή ενετικής διοίκησης και εραλδική κωδικολογία του κάστρου της Μεθώνης (Paris 2000-2001)Google Scholar.

20 For the procedure of the diffusion of practices, techniques and technologies between the Venetian metropolis and the colonies, see Concina, E., ‘ “Apis argumentosa”: Venice, the Mediterranean and the techniques in the “Stato da Mar” ‘, in Τεχνογνωσία στη Λατινοκρατούμενη Ελλάδα, Ημερίδα, Αθήνα 8 Φεβρουαρίου 1997 (Athens 2000) 125-6Google Scholar.

21 Pepper, S., ‘Fortress and fleet: the defence of Venice’s mainland Greek colonies in the late fifteenth century’, in Chambers, D.S., Clough, C.H., Mallett, M.E. (eds.), War, Culture and Society in Renaissance Venice, Essays in Honour of John Hale (London 1993) 40 Google Scholar; Kontogiannis, , ‘Κάστρα και οχυρώσεις’, 524 Google Scholar.

22 Andrews, Castles of the Morea, 74-5; Kontogiannis, N. and Aggelopoulou, I., ‘The Venetian city of Modone in SW Peloponnese: the archaeological evidence’, in Guštin, M., Gelichi, S., Spindler, K. (eds.), The Heritage of the Serenissima, the Presentation of the Architectural and Archaeological Remains of the Venetian Republic, Proceedings of the International Conference, Izola-Venezia 4-9.11.2005 (Koper 2006) 224 Google Scholar.

23 Andrews, Castles of the Morea, 70-2; Pepper, , ‘Fortress and fleet’, 36, fig. iiiGoogle Scholar; Foutakis, P., ‘Χρονολόγηση ενετικών οχυρώσεων του κάστρου της Μεθώνης’, Αρχαιολογία και Τέχνες 87 (2003) 64-5Google Scholar; Ενετοί και Ιωαννίτες, 74 [catalogue entry: N. Kontogiannis]; Kontogiannis, and Aggelopoulou, , ‘The Venetian city of Modone’, 223-4Google Scholar.

24 Andrews, Castles of the Morea, 17-8, fig.4; Pepper, ‘Fortress and fleet’, 38-9; Ενετοί και Ιωαννίτες, 71 [catalogue entry: N. Kontogiannis].

25 The castle of Zamata will not be examined here, since without further research it is impossible to securely discern the form or the architectural remains of the medieval period. The castle, which was in use in the 15^th century under Byzantine rule, underwent substantial repairs and additions in subsequent periods of Ottoman and Venetian rule, see Ενετοί και Ιωαννίτες, 62-3 [catalogue entry: N. Bouza]; Μανιάτικοι Οικισμοί [Δίκτυο Μουσείων Μάνης 1] (Athens 2004) 48-9 [catalogue entry: N. Bouza and N. Kontogiannis].

26 Miller, The Latins, 384-92; Lock, The Franks, 109-10, 132-4, 159-60.

27 Chronicle ofMorea, vv. 1679-1689, 1756-1790.

28 Bon, La Morée Franque, pi. 92, 99.

29 Müller-Wiener, W., Castles of the Crusaders, trans. Brownjohn, J. Maxwell (London 1966) 14 Google Scholar; Boase, T.S.R., ‘Military architecture in the crusader states in Palestine and Syria’, in Hazard, H.W. (ed.), A History of the Crusades, IV: The Art and Architecture of the Crusader States (Madison 1977) 144-5Google Scholar; Spiteri, S., Fortresses of the Cross, Hospitaller Military Architecture (1136-1798) (Malta 1994) 4–9 Google Scholar; Kennedy, H., Crusader Castles (Cambridge 1994) 187 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Smail, R.C., Crusading warfare (1097-1193) (Cambridge 1956) 226-30Google Scholar.

30 Dori, E., Velissariou, P., Michailidis, M., Κάτω Κάστρο, η πρώτη φάση των ανασκαφών στο Βενετικό Φρούριο της Χώρας Άνδρου[Ανδριακά Χρονικά 34] (Andros 2003) 196-7, 202Google Scholar.

31 Andrews, Castles of the Morea, 85-7; Bon, La Morée Franque, 669-70; Ενετοί και Ιωαννίτες, 84-5 [catalogue entry: N. Bouza].

32 The part of the castle which faces the modern city of Kyparissia was cleared of thick vegetation in 2005. A group of house complexes was revealed, obviously of early modern date, which must have been built in contact with the wall.

33 We could mention, e.g., the large cisterns from the 13^th—15^th centuries in the castles of Skyros (personal observation), Andros (Dori, Velissariou, Michailidis, Κάτω Κάστρο, 58-70), Leondari, Arkadia ( Sarantakis, P., Αρκαδία, ox aicponóL•iç, та κάστρα και οι πύργοι της, σιωττηλά ερείπια μιας δοξασμένης γης (Athens n.d.) 125-9)Google Scholar, Leuktron-Beaufort (Bon, La Morée Franque, 504; Mανιάτικοι Οικισμοί,46, fig.l8 [catalogue entry: N. Bouza and N. Kontogiannis]), Methoni (Andrews, Castles of the Morea, 82; N. Kontogiannis and I. Grigoropoulou, To Κάστρο τηςΜεθώνης, forthcoming), and Akrokorinthos ( Bon, A., ‘The medieval fortifications of Acrocorinth and vicinity’, in Carpenter, R., Bon, A. (eds.), The Defenses of Acrocorinth and the Lower Town [Corinth ΙΠ.2] (Harvard 1936) 257-9, figs. 212-3Google Scholar; Koumousi, A., Ακροκόρινθος (Athens 2001) 31-2)Google Scholar. Interesting examples from the lands of late Byzantine states are to be found in the castles of Berat, Albania ( Ćurčić, S., Chatzitryphonos, E. (eds.), Κοσμική μεσαιωνική αρχιτεκτονική στα Βαλκάνια 1300-1500 και η διατήρησή της (Thessaloniki 1999) 114 [catalogue entry: Gh. Karaiskaj]), and Gynaikokastro, , Macedonia, (Κοσμική μεσαιωνική αρχιτεκιονική, 112, figs. 6-8 [catalogue entry: A.Tourta])Google Scholar.

34 Andrews, Castles of the Morea, 87-8, fig. 95.

35 Bon and Andrews believed that the tower dated to before the 13th century, and was therefore not a Frankish construction. Their dating was probably based, on the one hand, on the fine masonry of ancient reused blocks (Bon, La Morée Franque, 670; Andrews, Castles of the Morea, 88), and, on the other, on the explicit mention of a central tower during the Frankish conquest (Chronicle of Morea, v. 1774). This is perhaps why they did not identify this building with a Frankish keep. In any case, it is a construction that stands out from the rest of the fortification by its size and commanding position; it can function as the main defence point, and therefore has been allotted all the features of a medieval keep.

36 Andrews, Castles of the Morea, 34–5, figs. 32-3; Ενετοί και Ιωαννίτες ϊππότες, 64—5 [catalogue entry: N. Bouza].

37 Bon, La Morée Franque, 666-8, pi. 93.

38 Chatzidakis, M., Mystras, the Medieval City and the Castle (Athens 2000) 123-4Google Scholar.

39 Andrews, Castles of the Morea, 41-8; A.D. Wolpert, ‘The Fortress of Anavarin—i Atik,’, in Zarinebaf, Bennet, Davis, A Historical and Economic Geography of Ottoman Greece, 224, 232-3.

40 Zias, N. and Kontogiannis, N., ‘Κάστρο Παλιού Ναβαρίνου: Εργασίες και πορίσματα της περιόδου 2001-2003',’, Εικοστό τέταρτο συμπόσιο βνζαντινής και μεταβνζαντινής αρχαιολογίας και τέχνης, πρόγραμμα και περιλήψεις εισηγήσεων και ανακοινώσεων (Athens 2004) 40-1Google Scholar

41 Hodgetts, and Lock, , ‘Some village fortifications,’ 79 Google Scholar; Wolpert, , ‘The Fortress of Anavarin—i Atik,’, 233 Google Scholar.

42 Wolpert, , ‘The Fortress of Anavarin—i Atik,’ 223-4, 229-30Google Scholar.

43 Ενετοί και Ιωαννίτες Ιππότες, 66-7 [catalogue entry: N. Bouza].

44 Bon, La Morée Franque, 638; Molin, K., Unknown Crusader Castles (London 2001) 203 Google Scholar.

45 Bon, La Morée Franque, 637-9.

46 For France, see Salch, Ch.L., Dictionnaire des châteaux et des fortifications du moyen âge en France (Strasbourg 1979) 6–10, 86-9Google Scholar; Mesqui, J., Châteaux et enceintes de la France médiévale, de la défense à la residence, I (Paris 1991) 66-8, 225, fig. 67Google Scholar. For Wales, see Taylor, A., The Welsh Castles of Edward I (London 1963, 1986) 45–62, 77-103Google Scholar; idem, , Caernarfon Castle (London 1953, Cardiff 1986, 1993) esp.16-7Google Scholar; idem, , Conway Castle (London 1957, Cardiff 1986, 1990) 4–6 Google Scholar.

47 Bon, , La Morée Franque,639 Google Scholar.

48 Molin, Unknown Crusader Castles, 204.

49 Foss, C. and Winfield, D., Byzantine Fortifications, an Introduction (Pretoria 1986) 30-1Google Scholar.

50 For e.g. the Chronicle of Morea, the chronicle of George Sphrantzes (ed. Bekker, I. (Bonn 1838) 130-6)Google Scholar, or various documents listing fiefs and castles of Achaia ( Hopf, Ch. (ed.), Chroniques Gréco—romanes inédites ou peu connues (Berlin 1873) no. XI: 227–30Google Scholar; Longnon and Topping, Documents, 67-155).

51 Breuillot, M., Châteaux oubliés de la Messénie médiévale (Paris 2005) 315-6Google Scholar.

52 Breuillot, , Châteaux oubliés, 264-9Google Scholar.

53 Longnon and Topping, Documents, 67-115, 125-30.

54 Bon, , La Morée Franque, 645ff, esp.650-8Google Scholar.

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56 Breuillot, , Châteaux oubliés, 83ffGoogle Scholar.

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58 Mesqui, , Châteaux et enceintes, 19–21, figs. 6-9, 12Google Scholar.

59 Breuillot, Châteaux oubliés, 161-76.

60 Bon, , La Morée Franque, 656-8Google Scholar.

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62 The lower ward was completely hidden by thick vegetation. Observation was possible only after extensive clearing work by the 26^th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, in 2005.

63 Drandakis, N.B., Kalopisi, S., Panagiotidi, M., Έρευνα στη Μεσσηνιακή Μάνη’, Πρακτικά της εν Αθήναις Αρχαιολογικής Εταφείας (Athens 1980) 211-6, pl. 138γ, 140αGoogle Scholar.

64 Drandakis, , Kalopisi, , Panagiotidi, , Έρευνα στη Μεσσηνιακή Μάνη’, 216, n.l. A photo of such a fortified cave has been published without commentary in Μανιάτικοι Οικισμοί, fig.77Google Scholar.

65 For e.g. the cave-castles of El Habis (early 12th century) and Tyron (mid-12th century): Deschamps, P., Le Crac des Chevaliers, étude historique et archéologique précédée d’une introduction général sur la Syrie Franque (Paris 1934) 77-8Google Scholar; Deschamps, P., La défense du royaume de Jérusalem, étude historique, géographique et monumentale (Paris 1939) 102-16, 210-20Google Scholar.

66 For e.g. the cave-castles of Switzerland, like Kropfenstein (early 14^th century) and Rappenstein (ca.1250), Gravett, Ch., The History of Castles, Fortifications around the World (Guilford 2001) 92-3Google Scholar.

67 Sarantakis, , Αρκαδία, 94-8, 169-70Google Scholar. The author dates the large number of fortified caves he recorded in Arkadia to the later period of the Ottoman rule, up to the end of the Greek War of Independence, based on local tradition or the work of 19th-century literati. However, further research will undoubtedly reach more sound results.

68 This fortified cave is here presented for the first time. I would like to thank Vassilis Hatzos not only for indicating the location, but also for his immense help in climbing the abrupt rocky slope of the ravine.

69 In this respect they are essentially different from the towers in Euboia and Boiotia, which were regional centres, seats of local magnates, participating in the area’s system of agricultural exploitation. See Lock, P., ‘The Frankish towers of Central Greece’, ABSA 81 (1986) 107-11Google Scholar; idem, , ‘The towers of Euboea: Lombard or Venetian, agrarian or strategic’, in Lock, and Sanders, , Archaeology of Medieval Greece, 110-1Google Scholar.

70 Κοσμική μεσαιωνική αρχιτεκτονική, 226–7 [catalogue entry: A. Mazarakis].

71 Ενετοί και Ιωαννίτες, 215-7 [catalogue entry: Al. Stefanidou]

72 Κοσμική μεσαιωνική αρχιτεκτονική, 216-7 [catalogue entry: S. Ćuroić], 218-9 [catalogue entry: Pl. Theocha-rides]; Oi ттруоі του Αγίου Όρους (Thessalonike 2002), 31-3 [catalogue entry:St. N. Stefanou], 38-9 [catalogue entry: PI. Theocharides], 50-3 [catalogue entry: PI. Theocharides], 72-5 [catalogue entry: Ph. Hatziantoniou], 98-9 [catalogue entry: I.Vouros], 146-9 [catalogue entry: G. H. Athanasiadis].

73 Pallis, G., ‘Μεσαιωνικοί πύργοι στα παράλια της Αθήνας’, Πόλη και Ύπαιθρος στη Μεσόγειο, A’ επιστημονικό συνέδριο νέων ερευνητών του περιοδικού ΔΙΑΧΡΟΝΙΑ, 29–31 Μαίου 2007, forthcomingGoogle Scholar.

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80 For a brief overview of crusader warfare, the function of strongpoints and their relation to the feudal regime, see Smail, , Crusading Warfare, 57–62, 97-106, 204–15Google Scholar; Boase, , ‘Military architecture’, 140-64, esp.142-3, 160-1Google Scholar; Marshall, C., Warfare in the Latin East, 1192-1291 (Cambridge 1992) 93–144 Google Scholar.

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