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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 February 2013
The word cursus may seem to be keeping strange company with slaves and freedmen. It does not refer here to the cursus publicus, but to the system of promotion in the sub-equestrian regions of the Imperial administration. Cursus implies movement, advancement, promotion. No bureaucracy can function efficiently without order and opportunity in its lower as well as its higher ranks. If a cursus did not exist it would have been necessary to invent one. It is necessary to affirm this of the lower ranks of the Roman bureaucracy in the early empire precisely because it has so often been denied or ignored. The impression gained from reading many works on the Imperial administration is that of fervid equestrian movement from post to post and province to province at the top, with a static substratum of Imperial slaves and freedmen providing stability and continuity below. Such an account is to some extent true. But that it is not true enough is largely the fault of the evidence.
page 75 note 1 For this, the accepted view, it is sufficient to mention among many others: Hirschfeld, , Verwaltungsbeamten (Vw.), pp. 429, 459Google Scholar; Liebenam, W., Verwaltungsgeschichte des römischen Kaiserreichs, I (Jena, 1886), p. 14Google Scholar; Rostovtzeff, , Diz. Epig. III, 137Google Scholar; Vaglieri, , Diz. Epig. 1, 80.Google Scholar
page 75 note 2 The literary picture of the Familia Caesaris between Claudius and Trajan is depressingly consistent; cf. among other passages, Pliny, Panegyr. 88, plerique principes cum essent civium domini, libertorum erant servi; horum consiliis, horum nutu regebantur…; Martial, IX, 79. 1 ff., Oderat ante ducum famulos turbamque priorem ∣ et Palatinum Roma supercilium.…
page 75 note 3 On Pallas, see recently Oost, S.I., A.J.Ph. LXXIX (1958), 113 ff.Google Scholar The career of Claudius Etruscus' father, although curiously parallel to that of Pallas in several respects, was more normal and less discoloured by the literary authorities; cf. in general, Statius, , Silvae, III, 3,Google Scholar and, for the early stages of his cursus, esp. ll. 63–4, laeta dehinc series variisque ex ordine curis ∣ auctus honos.
page 75 note 4 See Stockton, D., Historia, x (1961), 116 ff., esp. 119 n. 11.Google Scholar
page 75 note 5 Hist. I, 49Google Scholar.
page 76 note 1 It was in the emperor's interest to extract good service from his slaves during their early working life, and in the interest of the fiscus libertatis et peculiorum to have manumission purchased by Imperial slaves from their peculia, which, presumably, could not have been done before the legal age (see Jones, A. H. M., J.R.S. XXXIX (1949), 43 f.).Google Scholar The iustae causae manumissionis for slaves under 30 years of age apud consilium, listed by Gaius (1, 19; cf. 39) and Ulpian, (Reg. III, 1Google Scholar), such as blood or foster relationship, or intention to marry, could scarcely apply to servi Caesaris. Nor would informal manumission and the concept of Latinitas have much place. The one mention is late (C. Th. IV, 12. 3).
page 76 note 2 III, 1312; VI, 8512, 9019, 33136; VIII, 12880; X, 1740, 6785, cf. 6093; XIV, 176. A further three died having been married for 44, 21 and 10 years respectively (III, 287 = 6776; VI, 8432; X, 6571; cf. XIII, 1800). The figures for years of married life are not always useful as low figures may represent late or second marriages. High figures show middle or old age, as a minimum of 18–20 years needs to be added for males.
page 76 note 3 VI, 8687, 8839, 33775; X, 1731, 7588; E.E. VIII, 720Google Scholar; III, 7102; VIII, 1028, 3289, 12892.
page 76 note 4 The restorations in III, 7130, M. Ulpius Aug. lib. ∣ Repenti[nus qui dis]∣pensa[vit in provin]∣ cia Asia [annis trigin]∣ta…, especially the number triginta in full, are highly conjectural.
page 77 note 1 For the junior personnel of the Imperial civil service the best discussion is that of Jones, A. H. M., ‘The Roman Civil Service (Clerical and Sub-clerical Grades)’, J.R.S. XXXIX (1949), 38 ff.Google Scholar, reprinted in Studies in Roman Government and Law (1960), pp. 151 ff.Google Scholar
page 77 note 2 VI, 9091, 8527; cf. Hirschfeld, , Vw. p. 459 n. 4.Google Scholar
page 77 note 3 Cf. I.L.S. 1794, Erasinus Caes. n. ser. adiutor a vinis.
page 77 note 4 Apart from two optiones, freedmen who died aged 61 and 55, all the other tabellarii for whom we have age-data are slaves; their ages at death are: 45 (ex tabellar.), 40, 35, 30, 28, 28, 25, 25, 25, 20—and one Florus Aug. ser. tabellarius from Carthage (VIII, 12908), who must surely have retired some time before he died at the age of 82.
page 78 note 1 X, 1741, Suc(c)es(s)us Augustorum tabellarius… pedisecus in (d)ie vitae suae.
page 78 note 2 An exception is VI, 8528, Hermeros Aug. lib. praepositus tabular, rationis castrensis. Other examples are from the late second or early third centuries, and in all cases except one (A.E. 1935, 20Google Scholar) refer to officials in charge of stationes for the collection of the portoria: V, 5090, 7643; XIII, 5244; A.E. 1919, 21Google Scholar; 1934, 234. Under the Severi it became increasingly common for Imperial freedmen and slaves in the provinces to use the term of their equestrian procurator, e.g. II, 1085; III, 251; X, 7584; I.G.R.R. I, 623.Google Scholar
page 78 note 3 Fairon, Cf. E., ‘L'organisation du palais imperial à Rome’, Musee Belge, IV (1900), 5 ffGoogle Scholar.
page 78 note 4 VI, 8619.
page 78 note 5 Cf. Hirschfeld, , Vw. p. 463.Google Scholar
page 79 note 1 See esp. Pflaum, H. G., Les Procurateurs Équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain (Paris, 1950), pp. 29 ffGoogle Scholar.
page 79 note 2 ‘Vicarius and vicarianus in the Familia Caesaris’, J.R.S. LIV (1964)Google Scholar.
page 79 note 3 The best collection of material is still Vaglieri, , Diz. Epig. I, 81 ffGoogle Scholar. s.v. adiutor.
page 79 note 4 P.I.R. 2, c 794. Carpus could not have been Pallas' freedman (as Griffin, M. T., J.R.S. LII (1962), 105Google Scholar), but was probably manumitted by Nero. He could have passed into the Familia Caesaris before or after the manumission of Pallas, but as Pallas was manumitted by Antonia Minor between A.D. 31 and 37 (see Oost, , A.J.Ph. LXXIX (1958), 114Google Scholar), a date between his retirement in 55 and his death in 62 is more likely. See also Hirschfeld, , Vw. p. 241 n. 3Google Scholar.
page 80 note 1 Cf. Diz. Epig. I, 83Google Scholar.
page 80 note 2 This inscription, VI, 8950, is instructive. It was erected to Servatus Caes. n. ser. contrascriptor rationis summi choragi, who lived 34 years, by his friends Fortunatus Pompeianus and Optatus Aug. lib. adiutores proc. rationis ornamentorum. Irenaeus Caes. vern. adiutor tabulariorum, Isidorus Primitivi Aug. disp. vicar(ius) rationis eiusdem (sc. rations ornamentorum), and by Helius vicarius eius (sc Servati). The post of contrascriptor is held by slaves and is similar to but less important than that: of dispensator. The friends of Servatus, including two different kinds of adiutores in juxtaposition, are all of similar or lower standing—adiutores proc., adiutor tabular., dispensatoris vicarius, and his own vicarius.
page 80 note 3 An indication of favour is the manumission of M. Ulpius Aug. lib Menophilus adiut. proc. ab ornamentis before his father, P. Aelius Aug. lib. Menophilus (VI, 4128).
page 81 note 1 Proc. Équest. pp. 49, 75; Carrières Procuratoriennes (C.P.), p. 105 et passim.
page 81 note 2 I have contented myself with giving some examples and indicating some similarities between these two groups of adiutores. (Needless to say, I am indebted to Pflaum throughout; cf. C.P. p. 1264, Index s.v. adiutor; Proc. Équest. pp. 196 f.) (I) M. Te…, adiutor Cassi Mariani, proc. Aug. provinc. Narb. item Aureli Flacci, provinc. Belg. item Castrici Saturnini, provinc. Africae item Metti Rufi, praef. annon. (C.P. no. 52); (2) Sex. Attius Suburanus Aemilianus, adiutor Vibi Crispi, leg. Aug. pro pr. in censibus accipiendis Hispaniae citerioris, adiut. Iuli Ursi praef. annonae, eiusdem in praefect. Aegypti (C.P. no. 56); (3) L. Vibius Lentulus 
(C.P. no. 66); (4) L. Dudistius Novanus, adiutor ad census provinc. Lugudunensis (C.P. no. 82); (5) L. Volusius Maecianus, adiutor o(perum) p(ublicorum) (C.P. no. 141); (6) L. Vibius Apronianus, adiutor albei Tiberis et cloacarum (C.P. no. 160 bis); (7) Sex. Iulius Possessor, adiutor Ulpii Saturnini praef. annon. ad oleum Afrum et Hispanum recensendum item solamina transferenda item vecturas naviculariis exsolvendas (C.P. no. 185); (8) Q. Petronius Melior, adiutor curatoris alvei Tiberis et cloacarum (C.P. no. 201); (9) Ti. Claudius Zeno Ulpianus, adiut(or) ad cens(us) (C.P. no. 228); (10) Herennius Ser…, [adiut. cur.] alvei Tiberis [et cloacarum] (C.P. no. 267); (11) M. Aemilius …,[adiutor ad] cens[us] (C.P. no. 282 bis). Cf. also Pliny, , Ep. VII, 31Google Scholar, (Claudius Pollio)…a Corellio nostro ex liberalitate imperatoris Nervae emendis dividendisque agris adiutor adsumptus (C.P. no. 54).
page 82 note 1 P.I.R.2 c 1535.
page 82 note 2 The other freedman a rationlbus after Hadrian is T. Aurelius Aug. lib. Aphrodisius (XIV, 2104), manumitted by Antoninus Pius before the latter's adoption by Hadrian. He has the title— exceptional for a freedman—proc. Aug. a rationibus. Cf. Friedländer, , Sittengeschichte10, IV, 28Google Scholar. Another possible case is T. Aelius Aug. lib. Proculus a rat. (XIV, 5309.23, 28).
page 82 note 3 C.P. p. 395; cf. Hirschfeld, , Vw. pp. 32 f., 35Google Scholar.
page 82 note 4 Pflaum, , C.P. pp. 391, 1019Google Scholar.
page 83 note 1 See below, pp. 85 f.
page 83 note 2 VI, 8424, 8635, 8417, 8613, 8612, 33730.
page 83 note 3 VI, 5305, 8423.
page 83 note 4 Cf. Rostovtzeff, , Diz. Epig. III, 134 f.Google Scholar
page 83 note 5 E.g. I.L.S. 1507 (adiutor fisci Asiatici), 1531 (adiutor a codicillis), 1680 (adiutor a cognitionibus), 1688 (adiutor ab actis), 1692 (adiutor ab admissione), 1697 (adiutor a cognit.).
page 83 note 6 Duff, A. M., Freedmen in the Early Roman Empire (Heffer reprint, 1958), p. 225Google Scholar, quotes Dessau, I.L.S. 1452, …ilius…ab epistulis [Latinis adiutor], but Mommsen's restoration had already been rejected by Hirschfeld, (Vw. p. 32 n. 4)Google Scholar, Domaszewski, (Rangordnung, p. 220)Google Scholar, and recently by Pflaum, (C.P. pp. 445 ff.)Google Scholar and Townend, (Historia, X (1961), 378)Google Scholar.
page 83 note 7 III, 6107; A.E. 1950, 171.
page 83 note 8 Cf. Mommsen, , C.I.L. VIII, p. 1336 n. 5.Google Scholar
page 84 note 1 VIII, 21008.
page 85 note 1 E.g. II, 485, 486, 3235, 4181; III, 980, 1993, 3964, 7955; V, 7253; VI, 8446, 8579; X, 7584. There was also an 
(I.L.S. 8846); cf. Hirschfeld, , Vw. p. 362Google Scholar.
page 85 note 2 For the wealth of dispensatores: VI, 5197 (Musicus Scurranus); Pliny, , N.H. VII, 129Google Scholar; and see Mommsen, , Staatsr. II, 839 n. 2Google Scholar; Brunt, P. A., Historia, X (1961), 222 f.Google Scholar Otho (Suet., Otho, 5Google Scholar) exacted from one of his slaves HS 1,000,000 pro impetrata dispensatione, which merely shows an alarming state of affairs in the civil service during an alarming year. But Vespasian (Suet., Vesp. 23Google Scholar) did virtually the same thing, with no sum specified.
page 85 note 3 The most recent (1957) and fullest discussion of proximi in the early empire is by Ensslin, , P–W, XXIII, 1034 fGoogle Scholar. See also Hirschfeld, , Vw. pp. 335Google Scholar (and n. 3), 441.
page 85 note 4 (1) M. Ulpius Aug. lib. Zopyrus, prox. ab admissione (VI, 8701); (2) T. Aelius Aug. lib. Titianus, prox. a libr(is) sacerdotal(ibus) (VI, 8878); (3) M. Aurelius Aug. lib. Isidorus, melloproximus a rationibus (VI, 8425); (4) Aurelius Alexander (Aug. lib.), prox. ab epist. Lat. (XIV, 2815 = XV, 7832); (5) M. Aurelius Aug. liber. Marcio, prox. rationum (III, 348); (6) M. Aurelius Aug. lib.…, prox. a memoria (XIII, 1800); (7) (L. Septimius) Antonius (Aug.) lib., prox. a libeilis (VI, 180); (8) (M. Aurelius?) Ianuarius (Aug.) lib., prox. offci memoriae (VI, 8619); (9) Bassus Aug. lib., prox. ab epistulis Graecis (VI, 8608); (10) Terpsilaus Aug. lib., prox. a studiis (VI, 8637); (11) Hilarianus Aug. 1., prox. a rat(ionibus) (A.E. 1954, 65); (12) Tertiolus Aug. lib., prox. rational(ium) (X, 6092). Junior officials, not included in the present discussion, are: M. Ulpius Nicephorus Aug. lib., prox. comm(entariorum) ann(onae) (X, 1792), who died aged 18; Soter Augg. lib., prox. tabular(iorum) rationis patrim(onii) (VI, 8508); cf. P–W, XXIII, 1034Google Scholar. There are also two freedmen sub-procurators: M. Ulpius Aerasmus Aug. lib., subprocurator domus Augustianae (VI, 8640), who died aged 32; Hypaticus Augustorum lib., subproc. XX… (11, 487).
page 85 note 5 VI, 8606; cf. P–W, II, 2433Google Scholar (Aurelius, 35). He is not to be identified with the p(rae)p(ositus) tabell(ariorum) stat. XX her. of the same name in VI, 8445 (as by Friedländer, , Sitteng.10 IV, 41Google Scholar), who belongs to a sub-clerical grade.
page 85 note 6 P.I.R.2 A 1551.
page 85 note 7 See below, pp. 85 f.
page 85 note 8 P–W, XV, 558Google Scholar; Hirschfeld, , Vw. p. 460 n. 2Google Scholar.
page 86 note 1 Cf. Rostovtzeff, , Diz. Epig. III, 137Google Scholar; Hirschfeld, , Vw. pp. 32, 429 n. 6Google Scholar.
page 86 note 2 Cf. P–W, XXIII, 1035Google Scholar.
page 86 note 3 Hirschfeld, , Vw. pp. 34 n. 2, 320 n. 1Google Scholar; Friedländer, , Sitteng.10 IV, 39Google Scholar; Pflaum, , Proc. Équest. p. 318Google Scholar; Ensslin, , P–W, XXIII, 1034Google Scholar.
page 86 note 4 VI, 8614; cf. X, 6092 n.
page 86 note 5 Some examples from the early second century: VI. 23716 Pacuviae Speratae uxori M. Ulpii Aug. lib. Argaei quae VIX. cum eo ann. XXXVII. Fecerunt Pacuvi duo Hygia et Proculus matri…, 15317 Ti. Claudio Vitalioni filio…P. Aelius Aug. lib. Ianuarius pater et Claudiae Successae coniugi…cum qua VIX. ann. XXXI…et Ti. Claudio Aug. 1. Censorino filio; 20579, Iuliae Nice P. Aelius Aug. lib. Mansuetus coniugi…et T. Iulius Pontianus f(ilius)…; A.E. 1923, 76Google Scholar, Claudiae Methe coniugi… fee. Aelius Aug. lib. Hermes praepositus pistorum et Chrysanthus fil. sibi et Claud(iae) Euchari f(iliae)….
page 87 note 1 Cf. VI, 15221, Ti. Cl(audius) Primulus et Aelia Aphrodite qu(a)e et Sophe fecerunt sibi et Aurelio Aug. lib. Melisso filio suo; 13206–7, M. Aurelius Rufinus Augg. lib…. L. Caesius Urbanus filius.
page 87 note 2 Hirschfeld, , Vw. p. 34Google Scholar; Friedländer, , Sitteng.10 IV, 27.Google Scholar
page 87 note 3 VI, 8607, M. Ulpius Aug. lib. Eros. The title ab epistulis Latinis is found of Flavian date: VI, 8610, 8611. For the equestrian ducenarii ad legations et response Graeca since Claudius, see Pflaum, , C.P. pp. 34 ffGoogle Scholar. (Ti. Claudius Balbillus); pp. 41 ff. (C. Stertinius Xenophon); pp. III ff. (Dionysius Alexandrinus); Proc. Équest. p. 60.
page 87 note 4 Historia, X (1961), 375 ffGoogle Scholar.
page 87 note 5 Vw. p. 320 n. 1.
page 88 note 1 VIII, 14763, T. Flavius Gallicus proc. Aug. prov. Afric. tract. Karr. See Pflaum, C.P. no. 192, pp. 517 ff. For joint equestrian and freedman procurators under Trajan, cf. VM, 25902 (i) = F.I.R.A. 1, 485, Licinio Maximo et Feliciore Aug. lib. procc. Cf. Tacitus, , Ann. XII, 1.Google Scholar
page 88 note 2 Tacitus, , Hist, IV, 50Google Scholar (Baebius Massa); cf. Pflaum, , C.P. p. 99Google Scholar; Proc. Equest. p. 44.
page 88 note 3 Hirschfeld, , Vw. pp. 381 n. 4, 380Google Scholar.
page 88 note 4 See Pflaum, C.P. no. 150 bis (Claudius Paternus Clementianus), pp. 354 ff. and esp. p. 978.
page 88 note 5 Townend, , op. cit. p. 379.Google Scholar Equestrian proximi are not found in this period.
page 89 note 1 Sitteng.10 IV, 26 ffGoogle Scholar.
page 89 note 2 VI, 8597, 8631, 8408, 33467, 8596.
page 89 note 3 Vw. p. 319. Libanus and Victor are Caesaris vernae; cf. C.Q. n.s. XIV (1964), 136ff.Google Scholar
page 89 note 4 For his banishment in 82/3, Statius, , Silv. III, 146 ff.Google Scholar He was still a rationibus at the time as another senior official of the a rationibus (ibid. 161, curarum socius) was banished with him. The exile lasted for about seven years, till A.D. 90 (Silv. 1, 5. 65; Martial, VI, 42). Etruscus' father died late in 92, approaching the end of his 90th year (Martial, VII, 40. 6).
page 89 note 5 As suggested, with some probability, by Lacey, R. H., Equestrian Officials of Trajan and Hadrian (Princeton, 1917), p. 40Google Scholar. No freedman is known to have held the post under Trajan; and the passage in S.H.A. Hadr. 22. 8, (Hadrian) ab epistulis et a libellis primus equites Romanos habuit, does not mention the a rationibus in connection with Hadrian and therefore implies that Trajan was the first to use equites regularly in that post.
page 89 note 6 VI, 8411, 8412, 8413; X, 6640 (cf. VI, 8410); III, 14112.2 (cf. Suet. Ner. 48. 1, 49. 2; Dio, LXIII, 27. 3); VI, 8414 (cf. Tac. Hist. 1, 76); VI, 8415 (cf. X, 3347; I.L.S. 1474; VI, 33903); VI, 33468.
page 89 note 7 Pflaum, C.P. no. 60; cf. Sex. Caesius Propertianus, already under Vitellius (C.P. no. 37).
page 90 note 1 VI, 8600, 8601, 8603; XIV, 2840; VI, 8604, 1887; XI;, 3886; XIV, 3909; XV, 7837a; VI, 8605, 37747.
page 90 note 2 VI, 8610, 8611; XI, 1434; VI, 8609. VI, 8607, 8606.
page 90 note 3 However, if, as is likely, the Glyptus Aug. lib. proc. of VI, 37763 = I.L.S. 9025 is the same person, Glyptus may well have been of senior standing and the last freedman ab epistulis.
page 90 note 4 On the status of lictores, accensi and the other apparitores see Mommsen, , Staatsr. I, 332 ffGoogle Scholar. and esp. 355 ff.; Jones, , J.R.S. XXXIX (1949), 38 ffGoogle Scholar.
page 91 note 1 Adiutores (in chronological order): a rationibus: VI, 8422, 8417; A.E. 1950, 171Google Scholar; VI, 8420, 37743, 8418; (slaves) VI, 8423, 8419, 8421, 8424, 5305, 9033; ab epistulis: VI, 8612, 8613; a libellis: VI, 33741, 8615; a cognitionibus: VI, 8634; VII, 12613; (slave) VI, 8635; a codicillis: VI, 8442.
page 91 note 2 VI, 8610, 8611.
page 91 note 3 Pliny, , Ep. VII, 6Google Scholar. Hirschfeld, (Vw. p. 30 n. 4)Google Scholar says the tide a rationibus was avoided here as being too plain; the same may be said, no doubt, for Statius, , Silv. III, 3. 87Google Scholar, sanctarum digestus opum.
page 91 note 4 T. Aurelius Aug. lib. Aphrodisius, proc. Aug. a rationibus (XIV, 2104); cf. n. 2, p. 82 above.
page 91 note 5 Cf. Suet., Claud. 28Google Scholar.
page 91 note 6 XV, 7500; VI, 8598–9.
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