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³ Nys, , Etudes de droit international et droit politique 260–72 (2nd ed., 1896)Google Scholar ; Grotius, , Mare Liberum (1608)Google Scholar ; Seiden, , Mare Clausum (1635).Google Scholar

⁴ Selden, ibid., 13–16.

⁵ Phillimore, , International Law vol. 2, at 111 (1st ed., 1855).Google Scholar

⁶ Ibid., vol. 1, at 26.

⁷ See ibid. (3rd ed. 1882) vol. 2, at 126 and vol. 1, at 27.

⁸ See Kaplan, and Katzenbach, , The Political Foundations of International Law 70–76 (1961).Google Scholar

⁹ Verdross, , “Forbidden Treaties in International Law,” (1937) 31 Am. J. Int’l L. 571 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Anzilotti, , Rivista di Dritto Internazionale 78–79 (1914).Google Scholar

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²⁵ Supra note 10, at 217.

²⁶ Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1953), Vol. 2, A/CN/63, at 156, para. 2 and paras. 5-6. See also Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1954), Vol. 2, at 133–39.

²⁷ Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1958), Vol. 2, A/GN-4/115, at 26–27, 41–44.

²⁸ Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1964), Vol. 2, at 37, para. 8.

²⁹ Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1966), Vol. 2, at 214–15.

³⁰ See (1969) 63 Am. J. Int’l L. 875; ibid., 22; ibid., 23.

³¹ Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1985), Vol. 2, pt. 2, at 21.

³² Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1977), Vol. 2, pt. 2, at 21–22.

³³ Aerial Incident case, [1959] I.G.J. Rep. 158; Namibia Opinion (1971) I.C.J. Rep. 52.

³⁴ Falk, , “The Authority of the United Nations to Control Non-Members,” (1965) 19 Rutgers L. Rev. 591, at 593.Google Scholar

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³⁸ Yearbook of the International Law Commission (19641), Vol. 1, at 74.

³⁷ Eastern Carelia case, (1923) P.C.I.J. Ser. B., No. 5.

³⁸ See more fully Widdows, “Security Council Resolution and Non-Members of the United Nations,” (1978) 27 Int’l & Comp. L.Q. 459.

³⁹ See generally Kunz, , “Revolutionary Creation of Norms of International Law,” (1947) 41 Am. J. Int’l L. 119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁰ Supra note 26, at 154. Cf. his treatment of the priority of successive treaties.

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⁴³ Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. U.S.), Merits, [1986] I.C.J. Rep. 14, at 90, para. 97.

⁴⁴ Vienna Conference Proceedings, 1st Session, 80th meeting, at 47, para. 12.

⁴⁵ Virally, , Papers and Proceedings: The Concept of Jus Cogens in International Law, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 96 (1967).Google Scholar

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⁴⁸ United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties, Official Records E. 70, V. 60, at 300–1.

⁴⁹ This definition was reaffirmed by the International Law Commission in its Draft Treaty on Treaties Concluded between States and International Organisations: see Yearbook of International Law (1979), Vol. 2, pt. 2. at 156.

⁵⁰ Supra note 47, at 255–56.

⁵¹ Quadri, , “Cours général de droit international public,” (1964) 113 Hague Recueil, Vol. 3, at 335.Google Scholar

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⁵³ Supra note 47, at 237, 260.

⁵⁴ Mosler, supra note 13, at 85. For example, the principle of freedom of expression in the Sunday Times case, Series A No. 45, p. 21, para. 22.

⁵⁵ Suy, , Papers and Proceedings: The Concept of Jus Cogens in Contemporary International Law, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 75 (1967).Google Scholar

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⁵⁷ See Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1980), Vol. 2, at 30.

⁵⁸ Barcelona Traction case, [1970] I.C.J. Rep. 32.

⁵⁹ Iranian Hostages case, [1979] I.C.J. Rep. 19, 20, 40, 42.

⁶⁰ Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1976), Vol. 2, pt. 2, at 117.

⁶¹ See Art. 14(2) of the International Law Commission’s Draft Code on State Responsibility: Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1985), Vol. 2, pt. 2, at 21.

⁶² Supra note 60, at 99.

⁶³ Ibid., 73. In conclusion, the Commission decided to leave the relationship between jus cogens and international crimes unclarified: Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1985), Vol. 2, pt. 2, at 24.

⁶⁴ The expansion of the scope of international crimes has been criticized: see Gray, , Judicial Remedies in International Law 215–19 (1987).Google Scholar

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⁶⁹ Supra note 13, at 18.

⁷⁰ Monaco, , “Observations sur la hierarche des sources du droit international,” in Bernhardt (ed.), Volkerrecht als Rechtsordnung, Internationale Gerichtsb-barkeit Menschenrechte: Festschrift für man Mosier 607 (1983).Google Scholar

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⁷² Supra note 43, para. 188.

⁷³ Ibid., para. 204.

⁷⁴ Bedjaoui, , Towards a New International Economic Order 248 (1979).Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Ibid., 249.

⁷⁶ Caldera, , “Judicial Basis of a New International Economic Order,” (1986) 196 Hague Recueil Vol. 1, at 385, 391.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ See Brownlie, , Principles of Public International Law 270–83 (1979)Google Scholar and Shaw, , International Law 475–82 (1986).Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1964), Vol. 2, at 26–34.

⁷⁹ Ibid.

⁸⁰ Ballreich, , “Treaties, Effect on Third States,” in Encyclopedia of Public International Law (1984), Vol. 7, at 478.Google Scholar

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⁸² See generally Green, , “Is There a Universal Law Today?” (1985) 23 Canadian Yearbook of International Law 3.Google Scholar

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⁸⁴ Arangio-Ruiz, , “Friendly Relations Resolution,” in Encyclopedia of Public International Law (1986), Vol. 9, at 135 Google Scholar. See also the important study by Arangio-Ruiz, G., The United Nations Declaration on Friendly Relations and the System of the Sources of International Law (1979).Google Scholar

⁸⁵ The highwater mark of American international law is past: see Barberis, , “International Law, American,” in Encyclopedia of International Public Law Vol. 6, at 222 Google Scholar; and similarly on Islamic law, see Khadduri, , “International Law, Islamic,” in Encyclopedia of International Public Law, Vol. 7, at 227.Google Scholar

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