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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 16 December 2008
Although Gilbert Allardyce's recent article in the American Historical Review is useful in reminding us of “What Fascism Is Not,” even he recognizes the Führerprinzip, or leadership principle, as one of the few ideas common to all fascist movements in Europe during the interwar years. The fascists had little difficulty in deciding what they were against: “Marxism,” liberalism, parliamentarianism, individualism, and often, but not always, Judaism. They could also agree that they favored such vague and general ideas as a “‘new world,’ love of power and the dramatic appeal of youth, elite consciousness and mass influence, revolutionary ardor and veneration of tradition.” They were ultranationalistic and hoped to reunite their socially divided people into “people's communities.” In common with many nonfascist regimes they limited civil liberties and tolerated the existence of only one, all-encompassing political party. They stressed emotion and sentiment over reason, action instead of words, violence in place of peace.
1 84 (Apr. 1979): 367–81.
2 Ibid., p. 378. See also Carsten, F. L., The Rise of Fascism (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1971), p. 231Google Scholar; Nolte, Ernst, Three Faces of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National Socialism (New York, 1966), p. 456.Google Scholar On the Führerprinzip in Norway see Hayes, Paul M., “Quisling's Political Ideas,” in Walter, Laqueur and Mosse, George L., eds., International Fascism (New York, 1966), p. 148Google Scholar; for Italy see Finer, Herman, Mussolini's Italy (New York 1965), pp. 287–308Google Scholar; for England see Skidelsky, R., “Great Britain,” in Woolf, S. J., ed., European Fascism (New York, 1969), p. 231Google Scholar, and Jones, J. R., “England,” in Hans, Rogger and Eugen, Weber, eds., The European Right (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1966), p. 65Google Scholar; for Belgium see Jean Stengers, “Belgium,” ibid., pp. 161–62; for Finland see Cassels, Alan, Fascism (New York, 1975), p. 228.Google Scholar
3 Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism, p. 456.
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9 National Archives, captured German documents. Microfilm Publication T-120, reel 2889, frame E454209. Memorandum by [Kurt] Rieth of a conversation with Hitler in Berlin on February 9, 1934. Hereafter abbreviated as NA, T-1207/2889/E454209.
10 Botz, Gerhard, “Faschismus und Lohnabhängige in der Ersten Republik,” Österreich in Geschichte und Literatur (Mar.-Apr. 1977), 113.Google Scholar
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14 “Afterthoughts,” in Rogger and Weber, eds., The European Right, pp. 582, 585.
15 On the history of the Heimwehr see Edmondson, C. Earl, The Heimwehr and Austrian Politics, 1918–1936 (Athens, Ga., 1978)Google Scholar, and Pauley, Bruce F., Hahnenschwanz und Hakenkreuz: Steirischer Heimatschutz und österreiehischer Nationalsozialismus, 1918–1934 (Vienna, 1972).Google Scholar
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24 DAP, Aug. 21, 1926, p. 1.
25 Sammlung Schumacher, 302 I. Article by an unidentified writer entitled “Hitler oder Schulzpartei,” written about mid-1932, p. 2; DAP, Mar. 11, 1930, p. 1.
26 Messerer, “Frontkämpfervereinigung,” pp. 118–19.
27 (Vienna, 1930), p. 27.
28 Ludwig Jedlicka, “The Austrian Heimwehr,” in Laqueur and Mosse, eds., International Fascism, p. 139.
29 Bärnthaler, Imgard, Die Vaterländische Front: Geschichte und Organisation (Vienna, 1971), pp. 56, 58Google Scholar; Carsten, F. L., Fascist Movements in Austria from Schönerer to Hitler (London, 1977), p. 238.Google Scholar
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34 Interview with Dr. Karl Maria Stepan, Graz, June 30, 1964; interview with Walter Pfrimer, July 2, 1964.
35 For details see Pauley, Hahnenschwanz und Hakenkreuz, pp. 107–26, 140–43, 159–96.
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43 Rath, “The First Austrian Republic,” p. 180; see also Linz, “Some Notes,” p. 9.
44 Kerekes, “Akten zu den geheimen Verbindungen,” p. 338. Aufzeichnung des ungarischen Regierungsbeauftragten über seine Besprechung mit dem Heimwehr Führer Pabst. Vienna, Jan. 25, 1931.
45 Sammlung Schumacher, 305 II. NSDAP circular letter, May 31, 1927, p. 1.
46 Ibid., p. 2. See also Kele, Max, Nazis and Workers: National Socialist Appeals to German Labor (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1972), pp. 133–34.Google Scholar
47 Numerous letters were written to Strasser by leading Austrian Nazis pleading with him to appoint a strong Austrian leader. See, for example, in the Sammlung Schumacher, 305 I. Letters of Hans Krebs to Strasser, Mar. 18, 1930, and Alfred Proksch to the Reichsleitung, Mar. 26, 1930.
48 Ibid., unidentified writer in Innsbruck to the Reichsleitung, Sept. 27, 1930.
49 Berlin Document Center, Personalakten, Alfred Proksch folder. Letter of Proksch to the USCHLA of the NSDAP in Munich, Mar. 10, 1931, p. 3. Hereafter referred to as BDC. See also Carsten, Fascist Movements in Austria, p. 149.
50 Sammlung Schumacher, 305 I. Letter of Alfred Proksch to the Reichsleitung, Mar. 22, 1930.
51 Ibid., 305 II. “Exposé” of Leo Haubenberger (Vienna), Mar. 30, 1930.
52 Theo, Habicht, ed., Das Dienstbuch der NSDAP: Österreichs Hitlerbewegung (Wels, 1932), pp. 20, 82Google Scholar; Volz, Hans, Daten der Geschichte der NSDAP (Berlin, 1943), pp. 108–9.Google Scholar
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58 Ibid., p. 299. The Führer and Chancellor to Ministers Hess and Goebbels, Herr von Papen, and the Office of the Secret State Police. Aug. 8, 1934.
59 Office of the United States Chief Counsel for the Prosecution of Criminality, Axis, Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, 3 (Washington, 1946): 589Google Scholar, doc. 812-PS. Letter of Rainer to Buerckel, July 6, 1939. Hereafter referred to as NCA.
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62 Ibid., E453008. Unsigned article written in Vienna on Mar. 11, 1935, entitled “Notes about the Political Situation in Austria.”
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66 Memoirs (London, 1952), p. 384.
67 DGFP, D, 1: 362. The German Ambassador in Austria to the Führer and Chancellor, Vienna, Dec. 2, 1936.
68 Der Wahrheit eine Gasse, p. 445.
69 Ibid., p. 392.
70 Papen, Memoirs, p. 395.
71 BDC, Personalakten, Seyss-Inquart folder, personal declaration; Rosar, Deutsche Gemeinschaft, pp. 22–24. See also Pauley, Bruce F., The Habsburg Legacy, 1867–1939 (New York, 1972), pp. 17–18, 29.Google Scholar
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75 DGFP, D, 1: 464. Memorandum [by Keppler] of a conversation with Foreign Minister Baron von Neurath on Oct. 1, 1937.
76 United States Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1938 (Washington) 1: 386. The Chargé in Austria (Wiley) to the Secretary of State, Vienna, Jan. 29, 1938.
77 DGFP, D, 1: 540–41. Memorandum [by Keppler] of the Reception by the Führer on the Afternoon of Feb. 21, 1938, in the Presence of Field Marshal Göring.
78 Macartney, C. A. and Palmer, A. W., Independent Eastern Europe: A History (New York, 1966), p. 372.Google Scholar
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81 NCA, 3: 594, doc. 812-PS. Letter of Rainer to Buerckel, July 6, 1939.
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