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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 16 December 2008
The shock administered to the power structure of southern and central German lands by the Peasants' War of 1524–25 had many ramifications. Among the most interesting was the further deterioration in the always tense relationship between the imperial cities of the area and the princes and nobility. This deterioration stemmed directly from a feeling on the part of the latter two groups that the imperial cities had not supported the suppression of the rebellion as fully as they might have. Indeed, despite the fact that only a few imperial cities actually cooperated in any way with the peasants, some princes charged the leadership of all imperial cities with secret support for the rebels.
1 Maschke, Erich, “Deutsche Städte am Ausgang des Mittelalters,” in Die Stadt am Ausgang des Mittelalters, ed. Rausch, W., Beiträge zur Geschichte der Städte Mitteleuropas, vol. 3 (Linz, 1974), p. 40Google Scholar, n. 206.
2 The only attempt to survey the period as a whole is Kaser, Kurt, Politische und Soziale Bewegungen im deutschen Bürgertum zu Beginn des 16. Jahrhunderts (Stuttgart, 1899).Google Scholar See also Endres, Rudolf, “Zünfte und Unterschichten als Elemente der Instabilität in den Städten” in Revolte und Revolution in Europa, ed. Peter, Blickle (Munich, 1975), pp. 151–70.Google Scholar
3 For a further discussion of the structure and practice of the guild constitution, see Maschke, Erich, “Verfassung und soziale Kräfte in der deutschen Stadt des späten Mitterlalters, vornehmlich in Oberdeutschland” Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial-und Wirtschaftsgeschichte 46 (1959): 289–349Google Scholar, 433–76, and Eitel, Peter, Die oberschwäbischen Reichsstädte im Zeitalter der Zunftherrschaft, Schriften zur südwestdeutschen Landeskunde, vol. 8 (Stuttgart, 1970).Google Scholar
4 For a fuller analysis of these developments, see Naujoks, Eberhard, Obrigkeitsgedanke, Zunftverfassung und Reformation, Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für geschichtliche Landeskunde in Baden-Württemberg, ser. B: Forschungen, vol. 3 (Stuttgart, 1958).Google Scholar
5 See Kaser, pp. 181–83.
6 Kirchgässner, Bernhard, “Probleme quantitativer Erfassung städtischer Unterschichten im Spätmittelalter, besonders in den Reichsstäten Konstanz und Esslingen” in Gesellschaftliche Unterschichten in den südwestdeutschen Städten, ed. Erich, Maschke and Jürgen, Sydow, Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für geschichtliche Landeskunde in Baden Württemberg, ser. B: Forschungen, vol. 41 (Stuttgart, 1967), pp. 75–89.Google Scholar
7 Gerd Wunder, “Unterschichten der Reichsstadt Hall: Methoden und Probleme ihrer Erforschung” ibid., pp. 101–18; Mistele, K. H., Die Bevölkerung der Reichsstadt Heilbronn im Spätmittelalter, Veröffentlichungen des Archivs der Stadt Heilbronn, vol. 8 (1962).Google Scholar
8 Endres, pp. 155–58; Eitel, pp. 107–60 (with many useful tables).
9 See Kaser, pp. 37–54, for a discussion of this issue in Speyer.
10 Cf. Scribner, R. W., “Civic Unity and the Reformation in Erfurt,” Past and Present 66 (1975): 29–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moeller, Bernd, Reichisstadt und Reformation, Schriften des Vereins für Reformationgeschichte, no. 180 (Gütersloh, 1962)Google Scholar;Ozment, Steven, The Reformation in the Cities (New Haven and London, 1975).Google Scholar
11 See the declaration of the imperial cities presented to the Swabian League on the eve of the Peasants' War, Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv, Abteilung 1: Allgemeines Staatsarchiv, Munich (hereafter cited as: BHStA), Kriegsakten 28, no. 5–8.
12 E.g., in Nuremberg. See Buck, Lawrence, “Opposition to Tithes in the Peasants' Revolt: A Case Study of Nuremberg in 1524,” Sixteenth Century Journal 4 (1973): 11–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13 Nördlingen: Müller, L., “Beiträge zur Geschichte des Bauernkriegs im Riess und seinen Umlanden: Teil I,” Zeitschrift des historischen Vereins für Schwaben und Neuburg 16 (1889): 64–72Google Scholar; Schwäbisch Gmünd: Wagner, E., “Die Reichsstadt Schwäbisch Gmünd in den Jahren 1523–25.” Württembergische Vierteljahrshefte für Landesgeschichte 2 (1879): 94Google Scholar; Windsheim: Bergdolt, J., “Windsheim im Zeitalter der Reformation,” Quellen und Forschungen für bayerische Kirchengeschichte 5 (1921): 63Google Scholar; Heilbronn: Bossert, G., “Der Heilbronner Reformator Lachmann als Patriot im Bauernkrieg,” Württembergische Jahrbücher für Statistik (1908), pp. 44–66Google Scholar; Von Rauch, M., “Heilbronn im Bauernkrieg,” Historischen Verein Heilbronn—Bericht 14 (1922): p. 10Google Scholar; Rothenburg: Franz Baumann, ed., Quellen zur Geschichte des Bauemkriegs aus Rothenburg an der Tauber, Bibliothek des Litt. Verein Stuttgart, vol. 139 (Tübingen, 1878), pp. 216, 315–16.
14 L. Müller, “Beiträge zur Geschichte des Bauernkriegs im Riess und seinen Umlanden: Teil II,” Zeitschrift des historischen Vereins für Schwaben und Neuburg 17 (1890): 65–75.
15 Eugen Rohling, Die Reichsstadt Memmingen in der Zeit der evangelischen Volksbewegung (Munich, 1864), pp. 148–50.
16 On Kumpf, see Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, pp. 12–13, 17, 55—56. Another council member, Lienhart Stock, asked to be released from duties, and then immediately became active for the reform faction, ibid., p. 52. On Heilbronn, see Rauch, “Heilbronn im Bauernkrieg,” p. 10.
17 Compare the actions of the Augsburg council (W. Vogt, ed., “Die Correspondenz des schwäbischen Bundeshauptmanns Ulrich Artzt von Augsburg aus die Jahren 1524–27.” Zeitschrift des Historischen Vereins für Schwaben und Neuburg 7 [1880]: 239–43, no. 173; other installments cited as “Correspondenz,” with volume and year) with those of Nördlingen (BHStA, Literalien: Nördlingen, II/14) and Heilbronn, (Moritz, Von Rauch, ed., Urkundenbuch der Stadt Heilbronn, Württembergische Geschichtsquellen, vol. 20 [Stuttgart, 1922], pp. 32–33. no. 2790).Google Scholar
18 Wagner, p. 82.
19 Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, pp. 12–13. Zweifel's evidence on this point is not entirely trustworthy, since he was a member of the most conservative element in the council.
20 See the hearing conducted against Leonhard Mair: Vogt, “Correspondenz,” vol. 7 (1880), p. 234, no. 168; cf. pp. 239–43, no. 173, p. 255, no. 188.
21 Herman Hoffman, Der Bauernkrieg um Schwäbisch Hall: Beschreibung, ed. C. Kolb, Württembergische Geschichtsquellen, vol. 1 (Stuttgart, 1894), p. 287.
22 The Nördlingen council describes the citizenry as being “hoch beschwert” over the decision. BHStA, Kriegsakten 28, Apr. 1, 1525.
23 Wagner, p. 82; Naujoks, pp. 62–63.
24 The exact causes of the hostility toward the Swabian League demonstrated by the city communities in many instances appeared to be partially resentment of the council's financial exactions in support of league membership, and the changes in the council's sphere of authority introduced because of league membership, partially recognition of the position of the league as a potential chief opponent of the rebellion, and partially the traditional antipathy toward the stationing of “foreign” troops within the city. Franz Baumann, ed., Quellen zur Geschichte des Bauemkriegs in Oberschwaben, Bibliothek des Litt. Vereins in Stuttgart, vol. 129 (Tübingen, 1876), p. 369; Bergdolt, pp. 59–61; BHStA, Literalien: Nördlingen, II/14, no. 54. Cf. also the conscious use of the threat of league retaliation by some city councils, such as that of Schwäbisch Hall, which warned its peasants and citizens early in the revolt that, although they might be threatned with harm by the rebels, “mochten auch die pundischen komen und kuchenflaisch bey inen holen.” Hoffman, p. 277.
25 Letters of the margrave: Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, pp. 39, 54–55, 73–74. Council's reaction: ibid., pp. 40–41, 55–56, 75–76. Radical leaders' reaction: ibid., p. 55. Cf. pp. 64–65, where the council admits it is having trouble and asks for Casimir's understanding. For similar problems in Windsheim, see Bergdolt, pp. 74–75.
26 Zweifel credits Kumpf upon at least one occasion with averting open violence by addressing the assembled community in pacific tones, Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, pp. 55–56. On Egen: Wagner, passim. On von Werd: BHStA, Literalien: Nördlingen, II/14.
27 Cf. Wagner, passim, and Naujoks, pp. 60–64.
28 On the policies of the Forner administration in Nördlingen, see Müller, Teil I, pp. 144–45. Teil II, pp. 49–51, 106–19.
29 Bergdolt, passim.
30 Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, pp. 43–46. On Rothenburg's large or “outer” council see Eilentrop, Paul, Verfassung, Recht und Wirtschaft in Rothenburg o/T. (Marburg, 1909), pp. 50–52.Google Scholar
31 Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, pp. 52, 58, 62, 79, 81–82, 90–91, 102–10, 139–50, 216.
32 Ibid., pp. 281–86; 315–16.
33 See above, at n. 29.
34 Rohling, p. 152. See also Franz Baumann, ed., Akten zur Geschichte des Bauemkriegs aus Oberschwaben (Freiburg, 1877), pp. 240–41, no. 228.
35 Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, pp. 174–79.
36 Müller, Teil II, pp. 108–10.
37 Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, pp. 174–79.
38 Müller, Teil II, pp. 108–10. See especially Articles 4, 9, 11–13, 15, 18, 23, 27.
39 Baumann, Akten, pp. 40–41, no. 58b.
40 Bergdolt, p. 61.
41 Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, pp. 17, 19–20, 92–93, 113.
42 Wagner, p. 33.
43 Rauch, “Heilbronn im Bauernkrieg,” pp. 10–11.
44 Müller, Teil II, pp. 108–10.
45 Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, pp. 174–79.
46 Engels, Friedrich, The German Revolutions, ed. Leonard, Krieger (Phoenix paper-back, Chicago, 1967), pp. 29–30.Google Scholar
47 Endres, pp. 154–57. Cf. Maschke and Sydow, pp. 17–18.
48 Nördlingen: Müller, Teil I, pp. 118, 144; BHStA, Kriegsakten 28, May 1, 1525. Schwäbisch Hall: Hoffman, p. 295. Kempten: Marquard, M., “Kempten und der Bauernkrieg,” Allgäuer Geschichtsfreund 13 (1900): 18.Google Scholar Schwäbisch Gmünd: Müller, Teil I, p. 118, n. 1. Donauwörth: ibid., Nuremberg: J. Kamann, “Nuremberg im Bauemkrieg,” Program zu der Jahresbericht des Kreisralschule Nümberg, 1877/78 (Nümberg, 1878), p. 15. Windsheim: Bergdolt, p. 68. Heilbronn: Rauch, Urkundenbuch, no. 2824c, Bossert, p. 58, no. 7. On the economic burdens imposed by the shutting off of the weekly markets and the need to supply the indigent, see the joint declaration of the Upper Swabian cities in Baumann, Akten, p. 240–41, no. 228.
49 Cf. the assemblies in Überlingen (Baumann, Akten, pp. 163–65, no. 169) and Heilbronn (Hauotstaatsarchiv Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart—hereafter cited as WHStA— H53, Bü. 168, fasz. 91, no. 6). See also the assembly in Schwäbisch Hall: Hoffman, pp. 282–83.
50 E.g., in Rothenburg, Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, pp. 50–51. See also Ulm, Baumann, Akten, p. 34, no. 58a.
51 Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, pp. 406, 627.
52 Rohling, p. 147.
53 Franz Baumann, Geschichte des Allgäus (Kempten, 1895), p. 29. See also Vogt, “Correspondenz,” vol. 10 (1883), pp. 24–26, no. 529.
54 Rohling, p. 147.
55 Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, pp. 366–67; BHStA, Literalien: Nördlingen, II/14, no. 70.
56 On Appel: Bergdolt, p. 60. On Althamer: Wagner, pp. 30–31. On Schappeler: Rohling, pp. 145–47. On Lachmann: Bossert, passim.
57 Forner over an inheritance, BHStA, Literalien: Nördlingen, II/14, no. 70, and von Menzingen over “various matters”: Baumann, Quellen… Rothenburg, p. 51.
58 Vogt, “Correspondenz,” vol. 6 (1879), pp. 364–65, no. 211.
59 Cf. the responses of the Überlingen Council, L. Beger, “Studien zur Geschichte des Bauernkriegs nach Urkunden des Generallandesarchivs zu Karlsruhe,” Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte 22 (1882): 114–15, and of the Nuremberg Council, Kamann, pp. 51–52, Beilage VII.
60 See the case of Memmingen, Rohling, pp. 148–50. The council of Schwäbisch Hall decided to make public voluntarily the peasants' letters, trusting that the community would reject the demands of the rebels, Hoffman, pp. 289–90.
61 E.g., the unfavorable reply of the “alte Weingartner” of Heilbronn to the peasants, Rauch, Urkundenbuch, pp. 60–61, no. 2819.
62 Prof. Greiner, , “Ulm und Umgebung im Bauemkrieg,” Ulm-Oberschwaben: Mitteilungen des Vereins für Kunst und Altertum in Ulm und Oberschwaben 16 (1909): 8.Google Scholar
63 For typical instances in Ulm, see Baumann, Akten, p. 34, no. 58a.
64 Vogt, “Correspondenz,” vol. 7 (1880): 257–58, no. 190.
65 Nuremberg: Kamann, p. 36. (The Nuremberg council soon tightened up its refugee policy because of alleged “seditious speeches.”) Schwäbisch Hall: J. Herolt, Chronica, ed. C. Kolb, Württembergische Geschichtsquellen, vol. 1 (Stuttgart, 1894), pp. 230–31. Augsburg: Vogt, “Correspondenz,” vol. 7 (1880): 257–58, no. 190. See also Kempten: Baumann, Quellen… Oberschwaben, pp. 482–83.
66 Baumann, Akten, pp. 243–45, no. 231.
67 WHStA, H54, Bu. 47, no. 17; Baumann, Geschichte des Allgäus, pp. 112–13.
68 Rauch, Urkundenbuch, pp. 47–48, no. 2810.
69 Hoffman, pp. 315–16.
70 E.g., Heilbronn, Rauch, Urkundenbuch, pp. 47–48. no. 2808.
71 Baumann, Quellen… Oberschwaben, p. 484.
72 Bossert, pp. 60–61. See especially p. 60, n. 1.
73 Herolt, pp. 230–31.
74 Kamann, pp. 37–38.
75 Windsheim: Bergdolt, p. 68. Kempten: Marquard, p. 9.
76 Baumann, Akten, pp. 39–43, no. 58b.
77 Rauch, Urkundenbuch, p. 77, no. 2804a; p. 81, no. 2846.
78 Vogt, “Correspondenz,” vol. 7 (1880), pp. 329–30, no. 323.
79 Compare such early requests for help as those of Count Albrecht of Hohenlohe to Schwäbisch Hall (Hoffman, p. 281) or of Anna von Frundsberg to Augsburg (Vogt, “Correspondenz,” vol. 7 [1880], p. 280, no. 225) with the distrust of the cities displayed later by the Counts of Öttingen (Müller, Teil 1, pp. 82, 88) or the Margrave of Brandenburg (M. Thomas, Markgraf Kasimir von Brandenburg im Bauemkrieg [Gotha, 1897], p. 38).
80 “Aber wol gedenncken, das der paurm uffrur den meisten theil uss den stetten khome.” Letter to Duke Friedrich of Palatine-Amberg, Apr. 9, 1525, BHStA, Kriegs akten 72, fol. 186–89.
81 See the letter of Duke Wilhelm of Bavaria to Duke Friedrich of Palatine-Amberg, May 4, 1525 (BHStA, Kriegsakten 70, fol. 132), in which Friedrich is asked to question captured peasant leaders closely to determine if the suspicions many people harbored against the imperial cities were correct. The surrender of Heilbronn to the rebels on Apr. 19 was apparently decisive for many, since it was widely believed that there had been no need for the city to give up. See Harer, P., Wahrhafte und gründliche Beschreibung des Baumkriegs, ed. Franz, G., Schriften der Pfälzischen Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften, vol. 25 (Kaiserslauten, 1936), pp. 32–33.Google Scholar
82 BHStA, Kriegsakten, 70, fol. 145–46, 149.
83 See the letter of Chancellor Leonhard Eck of Bavaria to Duke Wilhelm of Bavaria, May 25, 1525: BHStA, Kriegsakten 74, fol. 113, or (in edited form) in W. Vogt, ed., Die bayerische Politik im Bauemkrieg und der Kanzler Dr. Leonhard von Eck, das Haupt desschwäbischen Bundes (Nördlingen, 1883), pp. 454–57.
84 Marquard, p. 41.
85 Vogt, “Correspondenz,” vol. 6 (1879), pp. 395–97, no. 161.
86 Ibid., vol. 9 (1882), p. 32, no. 449. Cf. Nuremberg's refusal of the request of Donauwörth for troops, Bavarian Staatsarchiv, Nuremberg (hereafter cited as NStA) Briefbücher no. 89, pp. 162–63.
87 For Nuremberg's mediation, together with Schwäbisch Hall, in Rothenburg, see NStA, Briefbücher no. 89, p. 75 and Hoffman, pp. 281–82. In Windsheim: Bergdolt, pp. 67–68. See also the Nuremberg council's long letter to the Weissenberg council: NStA, Briefbücher no. 89, pp. 141–43.
88 See those of Heilbronn (WHStA, H53, Bü. 178, fasz. 104; Rauch, Urkundenbuch, pp. 86–88, no. 2852) and Dinkelsbühl (Vogt, “Correspondenz,” vol. 10 [1883], pp. 17–19, no. 519).
89 BHStA, Literalien: Nördlingen, II/14, no. 33.
90 “So were mit kainem Rat einichem Stat Inn einigungen oder anderm etwas bestendigs zuuerschreiben vnd zuuerpflichten.” Ibid.
91 NStA, Briefbücher no. 90, pp. 32, 62–63; Bergdolt, p. 76; Kamann, pp. 34–35.
92 G. Scheidel, ed., Akten und Urkunden zur Geschichte des Bauemkriegs im Jahre 1525 (Ansbach, 1884), pp. 6–7; Bergdolt, p. 79.
93 Bergdolt, pp. 80–82.
94 NStA, Briefbücher no. 90, pp. 71–72. Nuremberg also advised the Dinkelsbühl leadership not to be too hard on its community, as this might increase the difficulties between them. See Müller, Teil II, p. 43, note 2.
95 Ibid., p. 40.
96 NStA, Briefbüscher no. 90, pp. 106, 115–16.
97 Rauch, Urkundenbuch, pp. 86–88, no. 2852.
98 Ibid., pp. 93–94, nos. 2861–2861a.
99 Ibid., no. 2861b.
100 Ibid., pp. 117–19, no. 2888, p. 184, no. 2942b.
101 Ibid., pp. 183–84, no. 2942.
102 The council offered a horse to the Ulm league representative Ulrich Neithardt (ibid., p. 205, no. 2968) and gifts of wine to the chief city administrative officer in the Swabian League, Ulrich Artzt, to the league council Secretary, Jakob Maler, and to the Augsburg Stadtschreiber, Conrad Peuringer (WHStA, H53, Bü. 168, fasz. 89, nos. 12a-c, 13, 16, 17). See also Rauch, Urkundenbüch, p. 39, no. 2798a on the policy which the city council hoped to follow.
103 Ibid., p. 211, no. 2982.
104 Ibid., nos. 2951a-b, 2952a-f, 2955a-c.
105 Ibid., pp. 217–18, no. 2982b.
106 Ibid., p. 218, no. 2982d.
107 WHStA, H53, Bü. 177.
108 WHStA, H53, Bü. 178, fasz. 104.
109 Ibid., but see also Rauch, Urkundenbuch, pp. 221–29, no. 2982n.
110 See Überlingen's instructions to its representative to the January league council assembly in 1527, supporting punishment of Heilbronn, in Kühn, J., ed., Deutsche Reichtagsakten unter Kaiser Karl V, Deutsche Reichstagsakten: Jüngere Reihe, vol. 7:1,2 (Stuttgart, 1935), p. 86.Google Scholar On the positions of the other league members, see WHStA, H53, Bü. 178, fasz. 107–08, which contain the entire correspondences from the years 1527–28.
111 Rauch, “Heilbronn im Bauernkrieg,” p. 31.
