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Demonic Assault, Providence, and the Search for Salvation in Early Modern Reformed English Protestant Theology
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 03 May 2023
Abstract
During the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries—the height of European demonological interest—England experienced a series of demonic possession cases that gained substantial attention from the clergy and laypeople alike. Reported across sensationalist pamphlets and learned demonological treatises, these cases were presented as extraordinary tokens of God's providence intended to be interpreted and responded to by those involved. English Calvinists during this period were largely interested in demonic possession for three primary reasons: what providential meaning this spiritual affliction offered, what action God was compelling them to carry out, and, more importantly, what profit they could gain in fulfilling their godly duties. The profit cited by these Calvinists was a glimpse into their predestined fate. This article argues that demonic affliction was fashioned as an emblematic phenomenon by English Calvinist communities with dispossession (exorcism) cast as a definitive form of spiritual warfare designed to provide comfort for the faithful and guide them toward a blessed conclusion. In this context, possession functioned as a providential catalyst: a call to carry out dispossession that, once fulfilled, brought the entire act to completion. Examining four possession textual accounts in detail, with a particular focus on the exploits of the controversial Puritan exorcist John Darrell, this article examines the intellectual construction of spirit possession and exorcism within an aligned Calvinist providential and eschatological framework. These cases exemplify many of the prevailing interpretations of spirit possession in the early modern English context and illustrate how this affliction offered individuals a potential salve to the vexed nature of Calvinist predestination.
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References
1 John Darrell, “The Doctrin of the Possession and Dispossession of Deminoiakes Ovt of the Word of God. Partiuclarly Applied Vnto Somers, and the Rest of the Persons Controverted Together. With the use we are Make of the Same,” in A True Narration of the Strange and Grevovs Vexation by the Devil, of 7. Persons in Lancashire, and VVilliam Sommers of Nottingham Wherein the Doctrine of Possession and Dispossession of Demoniakes out of the Word of God Is Particularly Applyed Vnto Sommers, and the Rest of the Persons Controuerted: Togeather with the Vse We Are to Make of These Workes of God (England: s.n., 1600), 67.
2 James Sharpe has argued for the existence of a “popular demonic” in early modern English print: pamphlets, broadsides, and chapbooks that occupied a middle ground between “popular” and “elite” demonological works. James Sharpe, “English Witchcraft Pamphlets and the Popular Demonic,” in Demonology and Witch-Hunting in Early Modern Europe, eds. Julian Goodare, Rita Voltmer, and Liv Helene Willumsen, Routledge Studies in the History of Witchcraft, Demonology, and Magic (London: Routledge, 2020), 127–146.
3 Raiswell, Richard, “Edward Terry and the Demons of India,” in Knowing Demons, Knowing Spirits in the Early Modern Period, ed. Brock, Michelle D., Raiswell, Richard, and Winter, David R., Palgrave Historical Studies in Witchcraft and Magic (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 194Google Scholar.
4 The social construction of demonic possession is brilliantly outlined in Brian Levack's The Devil Within: Possession & Exorcism in the Christian West (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013).
5 John Darrell, An Apologie, or Defence of the Possession of William Sommers, a Yong Man of the Towne of Nottingham: Wherein This Worke of God Is Cleared from the Evil Name of Counterfaytinge, and Therevpon Also It Is Shewed That in These Dayes Men May Be Possessed with Devils, and That Being So, by Prayer and Fasting the Vncleane Spirit May Be Cast Out (Amsterdam: s.n., 1599), sig. fiiiir–fiiiiv.
6 By Calvinist, this article denotes the subscription of English Protestants to the doctrine of double predestination. According to Leif Dixon, this definition is largely agreed upon in contemporary scholarship. Dixon, Leif, Practical Predestinarians in England, C. 1590–1640 (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2014), 9Google Scholar.
7 Michelle D. Brock writes that the relationship between the Devil and predestinarian theology is “yet to be thoroughly unpacked by historians,” despite this being a defining component of experiential piety throughout the Reformed Anglophone world. Brock, Michelle D., “Internalizing the Demonic: Satan and the Self in Early Modern Scottish Piety,” Journal of British Studies 54 (Jan. 2015): 24CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Brian Levack acknowledges that manifestations of demonic possession could be accommodated within a Calvinist soteriological framework but does not go into detail about the spiritual justification for this belief. Levack, The Devil Within, 161–164.
8 Clark, Stuart, Thinking with Demons: The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1999), 393CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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10 Possession was relatively scarce in Calvinist areas of Europe, as Continental Calvinism tended to downplay this spiritual phenomenon in favor of a more metaphoric understanding of demonic incursion. Young, Francis, A History of Anglican Exorcism: Deliverance and Demonology in Church Ritual (London: I.B. Tauris, 2018), 18, 44CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
11 Levack, The Devil Within, 261.
12 French, Anna, Children of Wrath: Possession, Prophecy and the Young in Early Modern England (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2015), 2–3Google Scholar.
13 As Marion Gibson forwards, possession pamphlets were similar in form and structure to witchcraft pamphlets yet adopted a more ideological standpoint that reflected a distinction in their overall purpose. Gibson, Marion, Reading Witchcraft: Stories of Early English Witches (New York: Routledge, 1999), 6–7Google Scholar.
14 Collinson, Patrick, The Elizabethan Puritan Movement (London: Cape, 1967)Google Scholar; Winship, Michael P., Hot Protestants: A History of Puritanism in England and America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018), 1–2Google Scholar.
15 Thomas Freeman, “Demons, Deviance and Defiance: John Darrell and the Politics of Exorcism in Late Elizabethan England,” in Conformity and Orthodoxy in the English Church, c. 1560–1660, ed. Peter Lake and Michael Questier (Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, 2000), 35–36.
16 Marion Gibson, Possession, Puritanism and Print: Darrell, Harsnett, Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Exorcism Controversy (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2006), 36. For a study on Ashby-de-la-Zouch and the prominent figures who resided there, see Lesley A. Rowe, The Life and Times of Arthur Hildersham: Prince among Puritans (Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2013).
17 In 1617, Darrell would publish a work attempting to shepherd seperatists back into the fold of the English Church. John Darrell, A Treatise of the Church VVritten against Them of the Separation, Commonly Called Brownists. Wherein the True Doctrine of a Visible Church Is Taught, and the Church of England, Proued to Be a True Church. The Brownists False Doctrine of the Visible Church Is Conuinced; Their Shamefull Peruerting of the Holy Scriptures Discouered, Their Arguments to Proue the Church of England a False Church Answered (London: Printed by William Iones, Dwelling in Red-Crosse Streete, 1617).
18 Jean Calvin, The Institution of Christian Religion, vvrytten in Latine by maister Ihon Caluin, and translated into Englysh according to the authors last edition. Seen and allowed according to the order appointed in the Quenes maiesties iniunctions, trans. Thomas Norton (Imprinted at London: By Reinolde VVolfe & Richarde Harison, Anno. 1561 [6 May] Cum priuilegio ad imprimendum solum).
19 A distinction is usually made between “general providence,” which denoted God's continuous upholding of the natural law, and “special” or “divine” providence, which describes direct interventions. The latter was generally classed as miraculous by Calvinists.
20 Calvin, The Institution of Christian Religion, I. xvi. 56.
21 Ibid., I. xvii. 61.
22 Romans 1:20 (1599 Geneva Bible).
23 Clark, Thinking with Demons, 403, 419–422.
24 See Chapter 18 for Calvin's explanation of the Devil's instrumentality. Institutes of the Christian Religion, I.18. 232.
25 William Perkins, A Discourse of the Damned Art of Witchcraft So Farre Forth as It Is Reuealed in the Scriptures, and Manifest by True Experience. Framed and Deliuered by M. William Perkins, in His Ordinarie Course of Preaching, and Now Published by Tho. Pickering Batchelour of Diuinitie, and Minister of Finchingfield in Essex. Whereunto Is Adioyned a Twofold Table; One of the Order and Heades of the Treatise; Another of the Texts of Scripture Explaned, or Vindicated from the Corrupt Interpretation of the Aduersarie (Cambridge, UK: Printed by Cantrell Legge, Printer to the Universitie of Cambridge, 1610), 61–62.
26 Darrell, “The Doctrin of the Possession and Dispossession,” 68.
27 James I, King of England, Daemonologie, in Forme of a Dialogue, Diuided into Three Bookes (Edinburgh: Printed by Robert Walde-graue printer to the Kings Majestie, An., 1597), Preface: 5, 33, 47.
28 Calvin, The Institution of Christian Religion, II. iv. 25–26.
29 2 Thess. 2:11–12 (1599 Geneva Bible).
30 Perkins, A Discourse of the Damned Art of Witchcraft, sigs. VIr–VIv.
31 This controversy persisted into the seventeenth century despite continued attempts by the episcopacy to address this issue (i.e., the 1595 Lambeth Articles). For more on the development of the Lambeth Articles, see Debora Shuger, “The Mysteries of the Lambeth Articles,” The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 68, no. 2 (2017): 306–325.
32 Dixon, Practical Predestinarians in England, 3.
33 Clark, Thinking with Demons, 393.
34 For a brief history of this concept, see Chapter 3 of Katherine Allen Smith's War and the Making of Medieval Monastic Culture, Studies in the History of Medieval Religion 37 (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2011).
35 Frank Luttmer, “Prosecutors, Tempters and Vassals of the Devil: The Unregenerate in Puritan Practical Divinity,” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 51, no. 1 (Jan. 2000): 46.
36 Levack, The Devil Within, 206–208.
37 Nathan Johnstone, The Devil and Demonism in Early Modern England (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 61.
38 Levack, The Devil Within, 68–69.
39 Ibid., 6.
40 Johnstone, The Devil and Demonism in Early Modern England, 6–8.
41 James Sharpe, Instruments of Darkness: Witchcraft in Early Modern England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997), 190.
42 John Deacon and John Walker, Dialogicall Discourses of Spirits and Divels Declaring Their Proper Essence, Natures, Dispositions, and Operations, Their Possessions and Dispossessions: With Other the Appendantes, Peculiarly Appertaining to Those Speciall Points, Verie Conducent, and Pertinent to the Timely Procuring of Some Christian Conformitie in Iudgement, for the Peaceable Compounding of the Late Sprong Controuersies Concerning All Such Intricate and Difficult Doubts (London: George Bishop, 1601).
43 Demonic obsession, while having clear precedents in medieval demonology, was not defined in English theological discourse until the early seventeenth century. King James VI and I outlined in his Daemonologie that there are two types of possessing spirits: “whereof the one followes outwardlie, the other possesses inwardlie the persones that they trouble,” and Calvinist theologians used this framework to develop the category of demonic obsession. James I, Daemonologie, 62.
44 Deacon and Walker, Dialogicall Discourses of Spirits and Divels, 226–227.
45 Johnstone, The Devil and Demonism in Early Modern England, 102.
46 Jesse Bee et al. The Most Wonderfull and True Storie, of a Certaine Witch Named Alse Gooderige of Stapenhill, Who Was Arraigned and Convicted at Darbie at the Assises There. As Also a True Report of the Strange Torments of Thomas Darling, a Boy of Thirteene Years of Age, That Was Possessed of the Deuill, with His Horrible Fittes and Terrible Apparitions by Him Uttered at Burton Upon Trent in the County of Stafford, and of His Marvellous Deliverance (Printed at London: For I.O., 1597), 33.
47 George Gifford, A Dialogue Concerning Witches and Witchcrafts. In which is laide open how craftely the Diuell deceiueth not onely the witches but many other and so leadeth them awrie into many great errours (London: Printed by Iohn Windet for Tobie Cooke and Mihil Hart, and are to be sold [by Tobie Cooke] in Pauls Church-yard, at the Tygers head, 1593), sig. H3v.
48 Kathleen R. Sands, An Elizabethan Lawyer's Possession by the Devil: The Story of Robert Brigges (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), 38–39.
49 See Richard Raiswell, “Writing Demon Possession: The Case of the Witches of Warboys,” Preternature: Critical and Historical Studies on the Preternatural 10, no. 2 (2021): 163–194.
50 Darrell, “The Doctrin of the Possession and Dispossession,” 1.
51 For a detailed examination of John Darrell's exorcism ministry, see Brendan C. Walsh, The English Exorcist: John Darrell and the Shaping of Early Modern English Protestant Demonology (New York: Routledge, 2021).
52 Anon., The Triall of Maist. Dorrell, or A Collection of Defences Against Allegations not Yet Suffered to Receiue Convenient Answere Tending to Cleare him from the Imputation of Teaching Sommers and Others to Counterfeit Possession of Divells. That the Mist of Pretended Counterfetting Being Dispelled, the Glory of Christ his Royall Power in Casting Out Divels (at the Prayer and Fasting of his People) May Evidently Appeare (Middelburg: R. Schilders, 1599), 14.
53 Samuel Harsnett, A Discouery of the Fraudulent Practises of Iohn Darrel Bacheler of Artes: In His Proceedings Concerning the Pretended Possession and Dispossession of William Somers at Nottingham: Of Thomas Darling, the Boy of Burton at Caldwall: And of Katherine Wright at Mansfield, & Whittington: And of His Dealings with One Mary Couper at Nottingham, Detecting in Some Sort the Deceitfull Trade in These Latter Dayes of Casting out Deuils (London: Imprinted by [John Windet for] Iohn Wolfe, 1599); John Darrell, A Detection of That Sinnful, Shamful, Lying, and Ridiculous Discours, of Samuel Harshnet. Entituled: A Discouerie of the Fravvdulent Practises of Iohn Darrell Wherein Is Manifestly and Apparantly Shewed in the Eyes of the World. Not Only the Vnlikelihoode, but the Flate Impossibilitie of the Pretended Counterfayting of William Sommers, Thomas Darling, Kath. Wright, and Mary Couper, Togeather with the Other 7. In Lancashire, and the Supposed Teaching of Them by the Saide Iohn Darrell (England: s.n., 1600).
54 See Walsh, The English Exorcist, Chapter 8 for the status of post-1604 English demonic possession cases.
55 Darrell, An Apologie, sig. Giir.
56 Philip C. Almond, Demonic Possession and Exorcism in Early Modern England: Contemporary Texts and Their Cultural Contexts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 14–15.
57 Pierre Viret, The Worlde Possessed by Deuils (Imprinted at London: [By John Kingston] for Ihon Perin, and are to be sold in Paules Churchyard at the signe of the Angell, 1583), sig. E1r.
58 Perkins, A Discourse of the Damned Art of Witchcraft, 216–217.
59 Calvin, The Institution of Christian Religion, I. xvii. 63–64.
60 British Library Manuscripts, “Master Brigges Temptation,” in Harley 590, Item 3. See Sands, An Elizabethan Lawyer's Possession by the Devil.
61 “Master Brigges Temptation,” sig. H. 7.
62 Ibid., sig. H. 8.
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid., sig. H. 7.
65 Kathleen R. Sands, Demon Possession in Elizabethan England (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 63.
66 “Master Brigges Temptation,” sig. H. 14.
67 Ibid., sig. H. 43.
68 Ibid., sig. H. 20; Sands, Demon Possession in Elizabethan England, 62.
69 Gibson, Possession, Puritanism and Print, 55.
70 Bee et al., The Most Wonderfull and True Storie, 2.
71 Sands, Demon Possession in Elizabethan England, 51.
72 Bee et al., The Most Wonderfull and True Storie, sig. A2r; Revelation 12:12 (1599 Geneva Bible).
73 Almond, Demonic Possession and Exorcism in Early Modern England, 13–14.
74 Bee et al., The Most Wonderfull and True Storie, sig. A2r.
75 French, Children of Wrath, 88–89.
76 Harsnett, A Discouery of the Fraudulent Practises of Iohn Darrel, 290. It must be noted that this passage is taken from Darling's testimony during the High Commission of John Darrell, thus meriting further consideration.
77 Bee et al., The Most Wonderfull and True Storie, 29.
78 Levack, The Devil Within, 163.
79 Bee et al., The Most Wonderfull and True Storie, 28.
80 Ephesians 6:13–17 (1599 Geneva Bible). 6:13: “For this cause take vnto you the whole armour of God, that ye may be able to resist in the euill day, and hauing finished all things, stand fast.” 6:14: “Stand therefore, and your loynes girded about with veritie, and hauing on the brest plate of righteousnesse,” 6:15: “And your feete shod with the preparation of the Gospel of peace.” 6:16: “Aboue all, take the shielde of faith, wherewith ye may quench all the fierie dartes of the wicked.” 6:17: “And take the helmet of saluation, and the sword of the Spirit, which is the worde of God.”
81 Bee et al., The Most Wonderfull and True Storie, sig. A2r.
82 Thomas Carew, Certaine godly and necessarie sermons, preached by M. Thomas Carew of Bilston in the countie of Suffolke (At London: Printed [by R. Read] for George Potter, dwelling in Paules Church-yarde, at the signe of the Bible, 1603), sig. 17v; Luttmer, “Persecutors, Tempters and Vassals of the Devil,” 45.
83 In medieval and early modern demonology, Beelzebub is either depicted as one of the seven princes of Hell or another guise of the Devil. The classification of demons varies greatly between demonological treatises, learned theology, and popular print in this period.
84 Bee et al., The Most Wonderfull and True Storie, 12.
85 Darrell, “The Doctrin of the Possession and Dispossession,” 80.
86 Johnstone, The Devil and Demonism in Early Modern England, 85.
87 Bee et al., The Most Wonderfull and True Storie, 41.
88 Ibid.
89 Harsnett, A Discouery of the Fraudulent Practises of Iohn Darrel, 112.
90 Darrell, A True Narration, 18.
91 Anon., A Breife Narration of the Possession, Dispossession, and, Repossession of William Sommers and of Some Proceedings against Mr Iohn Dorrell Preacher, with Aunsweres to Such Obiections as Are Made to Prove the Pretended Counterfeiting of the Said Sommers. Together with Certaine Depositions Taken at Nottingham Concerning the Said Matter (Amsterdam: s.n., 1598), sig. Er.
92 Harsnett, A Discouery of the Fraudulent Practises of Iohn Darrel, 112.
93 Ibid., 119.
94 Darrell, An Apologie, sig. Giir.
95 Clark, Thinking with Demons, 433.
96 Levack, The Devil Within, 189.
97 Harsnett, A Discouery of the Fraudulent Practises of Iohn Darrel, 142.
98 Brock, “Internalizing the Demonic,” 28.
99 Harsnett, A Discouery of the Fraudulent Practises of Iohn Darrel, 141.
100 Perkins, A Discourse of the Damned Art of Witchcraft, 38.
101 John Swan, A True and Breife Report, of Mary Glouers Vexation and of Her Deliuerance by the Meanes of Fastinge and Prayer. Performed by Those Whose Names Are Sett Downe, in the Next Page (London: s.n., 1603), 70.
102 Ibid., 1.
103 Swan denounced Samuel Harsnett in the preface of this text, claiming that he had “disputed and preached dangerous poyntes . . . as if there were no Witches at all” and “is of a minde ther is no Deuill at all.” Ibid., 68.
104 Ibid., sig. A4r.
105 French, Children of Wrath, 89–91.
106 Swan, A True and Briefe Report, 33.
107 Ibid., 27.
108 French, Children of Wrath, 93.
109 Swan, A True and Briefe Report, 29.
110 Ibid., 30.
111 Ibid.
112 Darrell, An Apologie, sig. Giir.
113 Bee et al., The Most Wonderfull and True Storie, 26–27.
114 Swan, A True and Briefe Report, 20.
115 Darrell, “The Doctrin of the Possession and Dispossession,” 69, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 87.
116 Ibid., sig. A3v.
117 Ibid., 68.
118 Ibid., 64–65.
119 Bee et al., The Most Wonderfull and True Storie, 26–27.
120 Writing as the pious character Daniel, Gifford ponders: “[Satan] is the Lords executioner, he hath sent him, wee may intreat the Lord to remooue him, but what authority haue we to command him to depart, where God hath sent him?” Gifford, A Dialogue Concerning Witches and Witchcrafts, sig. I2r.
121 George More, A True Discourse Concerning the Certaine Possession and Dispossession of 7 Persons in One Familie in Lancashire, Which Also May Serve as Part of an Answere to a Fayned and False Discoverie Which Speaketh Very Much Evill, as Well of This, as of the Rest of Those Great and Mightie Workes of God Which Be of the Like Excellent Nature. By George More, Minister and Preacher of the Worde of God, and Now (for Bearing Witnesse Unto This, and for Justifying the Rest) a Prisoner in the Clinke, Where He Hath Continued Almost for the Space of Two Yeares (Middelburg: Printed by Richard Schilders, 1600), 71–72.
122 Darrell, “The Doctrin of the Possession and Dispossession,” 66.
123 Darrell, A True Narration, sig. **v.
124 More, A True Discourse, 77. Another pro-Darrell publication provides a similar qualification: “He tooke uppon him no greater power in such cases, then was incident to any godlie minister, or other person; which only was to intreat the Lord in the name of Christ Jesus to dispossess the wicked spirit out of the possessed person.” Anon., A Breife Narration, sig. Br.
125 Darrell, A True Narration, sig. **v.
126 Clark, Thinking with Demons, 403.
127 John Darrell, The Replie of Iohn Darrell, to the Answer of Iohn Deacon, and Iohn Walker, Concerning the Doctrine of the Possession and Dispossession of Demoniakes (England: s.n., 1602), sig. Cr.
128 Darrell, “The Doctrin of the Possession and Dispossession,” 19.
129 Mark 9:29 (1599 Geneva Bible).
130 Darrell, A Detection, 6.
131 Darrell, A True Narration, 38.
132 Darrell, “The Doctrin of the Possession and Dispossession,” 106.
133 Gibson, Possession, Puritanism and Print, 4.
134 Perkins, A Discourse of the Damned Art of Witchcraft, 230.
135 Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic: Studies in Popular Beliefs in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century England (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 116.
136 Johnstone, The Devil and Demonism in Early Modern England, 104.
137 Young, A History of Anglican Exorcism, 30.
138 “Master Brigges Temptation,” sig. H. 47.
139 Harman Bhogal, “Rethinking Demonic Possession: The Impact of the Debates About the Darrell Case on Later Demonological Thought, with Particular Reference to John Deacon and John Walker” (PhD diss., University of London, 2013), 75–76.
140 Mark 9:14–29, Matthew 17:14–21, and Luke 9:37–43 (1599 Geneva Bible).
141 Darrell, A True Narration, 20.
142 Ibid. This is in reference to Matthew 12:43–45 and Luke 11:24–46 (1599 Geneva Bible).
143 Darrell, An Apologie, sig. Kiiir.
144 Bee et al., The Most Wonderfull and True Storie, sig. A2r.
145 John Darrell, A Brief Apologie Prouing the Possession of William Sommers. Written by Iohn Dorrell, a Faithful Minister of the Gospell: But Published without His Knowledge, with a Dedicatorie Epistle Disclosing Some Disordered Procedings against the Saide Iohn Dorrell (Middelburg: R. Schilders, 1599), 31–32.
146 Levack, The Devil Within, 149.
147 Bee et al., The Most Wonderfull and True Storie, 34.
148 Ibid., 38.
149 Ibid.
150 Ibid., 43.
151 Swan, A True and Briefe Report, 5.
152 Ibid., 49.
153 Ibid., 23
154 Ibid., 56.
155 Ibid., 64.
156 Ibid., 51.
157 Darrell, “The Doctrin of the Possession and Dispossession,” 68.
158 Darrell, An Apologie, sig. Jiiiiv.
159 Bhogal, “Rethinking Demonic Possession,” 142.
160 Brock, “Internalizing the Demonic,” 29.
161 Bee et al., The Wonderfull and True Storie, 33.
162 Johnstone, The Devil and Demonism in Early Modern England, 61.
163 Darrell, A True Narration, sig. *v.
164 Luttmer, “Persecutors, Tempters and Vassals of the Devil,” 66–67.