S.'s short book offers a stimulating exploration of the extensive and richly investigated topic of time in antiquity by (1) proposing an analysis that concisely connects different aspects of time that have so far remained separate in scholarship, such as techniques of time measurement, socio-cultural traits of the passing of time, attitudes towards the past, philosophical speculations and so on; and (2) focusing the analysis on medical writing and on the work of Galen in particular. Galen, as a medical author, represents a perfect choice to achieve the first of S.'s two goals, which are distinctly declared in the preface in view of the deep connection throughout his corpus between philosophy and medicine, reason and experience, theory and practice (issues on which S. has published extensively) as well as his constant engagement with the past and its authorities.
The goals of each chapter and section, the questions to be answered, the premises and the background as well as the conclusions, are well signposted. The book consists of five chapters of increasing conceptual difficulty. Chapter 1, ‘Time Measurement, Time Management: Days, Hours and Routine’, exploring both literary and archaeological sources, provides a brief but effective survey on tools and techniques used in the Graeco-Roman world for measuring time: public monuments with meridian lines performing calendrical functions, sundials for the indication of daily hours and water-clocks for smaller units of time. This first part of the chapter is accompanied by a useful complementary section that explores the semantic range of the Greek word hōra and the historical development represented by the transition from the meaning of ‘season’ to ‘hour’, particularly in relation to medical history. The section dedicated to the issue of accuracy draws fully from Galen, who is presented as an excellent source for technical/methodological matters extending beyond medical discourse. The chapter is enriched by photographs of archaeological evidence, some of which are a nice complement, while others as visual aids are not of particular assistance in view of their modest quality, and some schematic drawings would have been more beneficial.
The second part of the chapter investigates ancient attitudes towards time management, in both literary (section 7) and medical texts (section 8) – the latter dealing mainly with regimen and healthy lifestyle. Despite the constant attempts to reconcile theory and practice and the evident importance for the ancients of knowing the precise hour in different contexts, S. does not shy away from admitting the rarity or inconclusiveness of textual references to the actual employment of time-telling devices.
In Chapter 2, ‘Times of Life and Times of Year: the Ever-Shifting Cycle’, S. investigates two kinds of cycles – life stages and seasons – both in a broader context as depicted by literary sources and more theorised models of medical authors and philosophers and also in physiological and medical discussions focusing on Hippocratic and Galenic texts and engaging with the issue of how Galen deals with Hippocratic material. A useful astronomical introduction is included. The last section of the chapter (‘A final consideration: temporal and atemporal human beings’) deals with self-perception in imperial times and iconography in relation to life stages. It might give the impression of a minor and slightly unconnected diversion, but S. does not explore this theme excessively; rather, it is mentioned for the sake of completeness, since a discussion of this topic would be extensive and way beyond the scope of the book.
Chapter 4, ‘Time for the Doctor: Crises, Perils and Opportunities’, is directly connected to Chapter 2 and explores shorter time cycles in relation to the diagnosis and the treatment of fevers. The chapter opens with an interesting and pertinent introduction on the Greek concept of kairos, before moving towards the more technical topic of fevers. The account of the matter is not always straightforward (as in the calculation of the period) and would have benefited from some expansion, but it is hard to summarise a topic that represents such a paramount feature in ancient medical experience. What clearly emerges from this chapter is the utmost importance of time measurement in medical practice, contributing to the overall aim of the book. As S. points out, the evidence comes ‘overwhelmingly from Galen’ (p. 109): his texts provide us not only with his own views but also with doctrines from other medical authorities with which he engages or which he debates.
In Chapter 5, ‘Time, Motion, Rhythm: Reality, Perception and Quantification’, S. deals with some aspects of time that are related to one of his main research foci: the connection between medical writings and philosophical debates, which in Galen is especially evident. This rich chapter successfully bridges the gap – as the whole book attempts to do, in a perfectly Galenic style – between theory and practice and makes particularly clear ‘the relevance of abstract conception in real-life contexts’ (p. 123).
As in other parts of the book, at the beginning of this chapter S. succeeds in giving a simplified account of the complex matter of time in its relationship to motion in Plato, Aristotle and their tradition, which is fundamental for the present investigation. S. then provides an analysis of Galen's ideas on time and motion and on how they depart from the previous philosophical tradition. These ideas appear to derive from Galen's lost work Demonstration. S. debates the interpretational difficulties arising from the hostility of Themistius and Simplicius, who were commentators on Aristotle's Physics and who deliver quotations from the lost Galenic treatise.
Sections 4–6 switch towards clinical practice, but are again based on a complex theoretical framework of which S. offers a simplified overview – the speed of the pulse, other variables in relation to it, the concepts of rhythm and rate. The issue of how any such measurement was performed is addressed through the analysis of passages from the rather understudied Galenic work The discernment of the pulse and through the insertion of such an issue into the broader framework of Galen's system of medicine, which include the fundamental matter of the assessment of bodily mixtures – a topic to which S. is particularly devoted (Galen: Works on Human Nature: Volume 1, Mixtures [2018]). The analysis includes evidence from earlier pulse theories by Herophilus of Chalcedon as well as musical theories by the Aristotelian philosopher Aristoxenus of Tarentum that deal with rhythm and minimal units of time. On occasion, S. reflects on the plausibility of certain ancient concepts and procedures in the eyes of contemporary readers, successfully pointing out the insight and the merits of ancient thinkers.
Chapter 3, ‘Lives in Time: History, Biography, Bibliography’, relates to time in a more indirect way and has ‘a more specifically literary-intellectual focus’ (p. 71). It represents for S. an excuse to reflect on Galen's personal relationship with time on a larger scale – that is, on Galen's approach towards the previous tradition (both medical and philosophical) and his conflicting relationship with recent/contemporary physicians and medical schools. The last section (‘A parallel biography: Porphyry's Life of Plotinus’) appears slightly disconnected from the rest of the chapter; further information on the authors discussed would have been beneficial.
The book is suitable to learned readers and scholars from many disciplines (philosophy, history of medicine, history of science/technology and classical literature in general). Some footnote expansions will be of interest to specialists, as well as translations and exploration of Galenic unexplored works such as The discernment of the pulse. The indexes are adequate, and the bibliography is extensive. The work is overall a pleasant contribution of benefit to historians of medicine as well as those curious about time-related topics.
