Hostname: page-component-68945f75b7-76l5x Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-08-06T07:32:51.583Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

New Trends in the Treatment of Anxiety Disorders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Abstract

Anxiety disorders are among the most prevalent psychiatric disorders in the general population, found nearly twice as often in women, and estimated to affect 26.9 million individuals in the United States alone. Anxiety disorders are associated with considerable chronicity, morbidity, and disability. Treatment of anxiety disorders includes pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic approaches. The first-line pharmacologic treatments currently include the use of serotonin reuptake inhibitors and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. However, despite the general success of the available treatments, no single anxiolytic appears to be effective for all patients suffering from anxiety. Low recovery rates have been reported in all anxiety disorders, underscoring the need for optimizing treatment for these disabling disorders. In recent years, there is increasing interest in the use of atypical neuroleptics in the treatment of anxiety disorders patients. This article discusses the emerging data on the use of these agents in the treatment of anxiety with a focus on treatment-refractory patients and on the implications for the treatment of women suffering from anxiety disorders.

Type
Academic Supplement
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2004

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders. 4th ed text-rev. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.Google Scholar
2. Executive Summary (2003) Mental Health: Culture, Race, and Ethnicity. A Supplement to Mental Health: a Report of the Surgeon General. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General, SAMHSA; 2003:14.Google Scholar
3. Breslau, N, Chilcoat, H, Schultz, LR. Anxiety disorders and the emergence of sex differences in major depression. J Gend Specif Med. 1998;1:3339.Google ScholarPubMed
4. Leon, A, Portera, L, Weissman, M. The social costs of anxiety disorders. Br J Psychiatry. 1995;27:1922.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
5. Weissman, M, Merikangas, K. The epidemiology of anxiety and panic disorders: an update. J Clin Psychiatry. 1986;47(Suppl):1117.Google ScholarPubMed
6. Schatzberg, A. Overview of anxiety disorders: prevalence, biology, course, and treatment. J Clin Psychiatry. 1991;52:59.Google Scholar
7. Regier, DA, Boyd, JH, Burke, JD Jr, et al. One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States: based on five Epidemiologic Catchment Area sites. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988;45:977986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8. Regier, D, Narrow, W, Rae, D. The epidemiology of anxiety disorders: the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) experience. J Psychiatr Res. 1990;24(2):314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9. Eaton, WW, Kramer, M, Anthony, JC, Dryman, A, Shapiro, S, Locke, BZ. The incidence of specific DSM-III mental disorders: data from the NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area Program. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1989;79(2):163178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10. Kessler, RC, McGonagle, KA, Zhao, S, et al. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51(1):819.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11. Karno, M, Golding, JM, Sorenson, SB, Burnam, MA. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in five US communities. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988;45(12):10941099.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12. Lepine, JP. Epidemiology, burden, and disability in depression and anxiety. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62(suppl 13):410.Google ScholarPubMed
13. Overbeek, T, Schruers, K, Vermetten, E, Griez, E. Comorbidity of obsessivecompulsive disorder and depression: prevalence, symptom severity, and treatment effect. J Clin Psychiatry. 2002;63(12):11061112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14. Albus, M, Scheibe, G. Outcome of panic disorder with or without concomitant depression: A 2-year prospective follow-up study. Am J Psychiatry. 1993;150(12):18781880.Google ScholarPubMed
15. Ninan, PT. Dissolving the burden of generalized anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62(Suppl 19):510.Google ScholarPubMed
16. Greenberg, PE, Sisitsky, T, Kessler, RC, et al. The economic burden of anxiety disorders in the 1990s. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60:427435.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17. Connor, KM, Davidson, JR. A placebo-controlled study of Kava kava in generalized anxiety disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2002;17(4):185188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
18. Lehrl, S. Clinical efficacy of kava extract WS 1490 in sleep disturbances associated with anxiety disorders. Results of a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial. J Affect Disord. 2004;78(2):101110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19. Brown, CS. Depression and anxiety disorders. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 2001:28:241268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20. Kessler, RC, Soukup, J, Davis, RB, et al. The use oi complementary and alternative therapies to treat anxiety and depression in the United States. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:289294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
21. Kessler, RC, Keller, MB, Wittchen, HU. The epidemiology of generalized anxiety disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2001:24:1939.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22. Brawman-Mintzer, O. Pharmacological Treatment of Generalised Anxiety Disorder. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders; 2001:119139.Google Scholar
23. Doyle, AC, Pollack, MH. Establishment of remission criteria for anxiety disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64(Suppl 15):4045.Google ScholarPubMed
24. Davidson, J, Kudler, H, Smith, R. Treatment of PTSD with amitriptyline and placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1990:47:259266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
25. Reist, C, Kauffman, CD, Haier, RJ. A controlled trial of desipramine in 18 men with PTSD. Am J Psychiatry. 1989;146:513516.Google Scholar
26. Frank, JB, Kosten, TR, Giller, EL Jr, Dan, E. A randomized clinical trial of phenelzine and imipramine for PTSD. Am J Psychiatry. 1988;145:12891291.Google Scholar
27. Schneier, FR. Treatment of social phobia with antidepressants. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62(Suppl 1):4349.Google ScholarPubMed
28. Sheehan, DV. Current concepts in the treatment of panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60(suppl 18):1621.Google ScholarPubMed
29. Stein, DJ, Versiani, M, Hair, T, Kumar, R. Efficacy of paroxetine for relapse prevention in social anxiety disorder: a 24-week study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002:59:11111118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30. Pigott, TA, Seay, SM. A review of the efficacy of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60:101106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31. Davidson, JR. Pharmacotherapy of posttraumatic stress disorder: treatment options, long-term follow-up, and predictors of outcome. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61(suppl 5):5259.Google ScholarPubMed
32. Brawman-Mintzer, O, Rickels, K, Rynn, M, Knapp, R. A placebo-controlled, double-blind, flexible dosage study to evaluate the efficacy and tolerability of sertraline in the treatment of DSM-IV generalized anxiety disorder. Poster presented at: 15th Annual Congress of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology; October 5–9, 2002; Barcelona, Spain.Google Scholar
33. Davidson, JRT Bose, A, Zheng, H. Escitalopram in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: A double blind, placebo-controlled, flexible dose study. Presented at: 41st Annual Meeting of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology; December 8–12, 2002; San Juan, Puerto Rico.Google Scholar
34. Stahl, SM, Gergel, I, Li, D. Escitalopram in the treatment of panic disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64(11):13221327.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35. Rickels, K, Zaninelli, R, McCafferty, J, Bellew, K, Iyengar, M, Sheehan, D. Paroxetine treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160(4):749756.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36. Davidson, JR, Rothbaum, BO, van der Kolk, BA, Sikes, CR, Farfel, GM. Multicenter, double-blind comparison of sertraline and placebo in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58(5):485492.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37. Rickels, K, Pollack, MH, Sheehan, DV, Haskins, JT. Efficacy of extendedrelease venlafaxine in nondepressed outpatients with generalized anxietydisorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157(6):968974.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
38. Pollack, MH, Worthington, JJ 3rd, Otto, MW, et al. Venlafaxine for panic disorder: results from a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1996;32(4):667670.Google ScholarPubMed
39. Liebowitz, M, Mangano, RM. Venlafaxine XR in generalized social anxiety disorder. Int J Neumpsychopharmacol. 2002;5(Suppl 1):211.Google Scholar
40. Asnis, GM, Kohn, SR, Henderson, M, Brown, NL. SSRIs versus non-SSRIs in post-traumatic stress disorder: an update with recommendations. Drugs. 2004;64(4):383404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
41. Denys, D, van Megen, HJ, van der Wee, N, Westenberg, HG. A double-blind switch study of paroxetine and venlafaxine in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65(1):3743.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42. Hollander, E, Friedberg, J, Wasserman, S, Allen, A, Birnbaum, M, Koran, LM. Venlafaxine in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64(5):546550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43. Goodnick, PJ, Puig, A, DeVane, CL, Freund, BV. Mirtazapine in major depression with comorbid generalized anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60:446448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44. Hedges, DW, Reimherr, FW, Strong, RE, Halls, CH, Rust, C. An open trial of nefazodone in adult patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1996:32:671676.Google ScholarPubMed
45. Emmanuel, NP, Brawman-Mintzer, O, Morton, WA, et al. Bupropion-SR in treatment of social phobia. Depress Anxiety. 2000;12(2):111113.3.0.CO;2-3>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46. Canive, JM, Clark, RD, Calais, LA, Quails, C, Tuason, VB. Bupropion treatment in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: an open study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1998;18(5):379383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47. Papp, LA, Coplan, JD, Martinez, JM, de Jesus, M, Gorman, JM. Efficacy of open-label nefazodone treatment in patients with panic disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2000;20(5):544546.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48. Van Ameringen, M, Mancini, C, Oakman, JM. Nefazodone in social phobia. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60(2):96100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49. McRae, AL Brady, KT, Mellman, TA, et al. Comparison of nefazodone and sertraline for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2004;19(3):190196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
50. Dunner, DL, Goldstein, DJ, Mallinckrodt, C, Lu, Y, Detke, MJ. Duloxetine in treatment of anxiety symptoms associated with depression. Depress Anxiety. 2003;18(2):5361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51. Rosenthal, M. Tiagabine for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: a randomized, open-label, clinical trial with paroxetine as a positive control. J Clm Psychiatry. 2003;64(10):12451249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
52. Rickels, K, Pollack, MH, Lydiard, RB, et al. Efficacy and safety of pregabalin and alprazolam in generalized anxiety disorder. Poster presented at: Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; June 2002; Philadelphia, PA.Google Scholar
53. Keller, MB. Raising the expectations of long-term treatment strategies in anxiety disorders. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2002;36(Suppl 2):166174.Google ScholarPubMed
54. Yonkers, KA, Zlotnick, C, Allsworth, J, Warshaw, M, Shea, T, Keller, MB. Is the course of panic disorder the same in women and men? Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155(5):596602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55. Yonkers, KA, Bruce, SE, Dyck, IR, Keller, MB. Chronicity, relapse, and illnesscourse of panic disorder, social phobia, and generalized anxiety disorder: findings in men and women from 8 years of follow-up. Depress Anxiety. 2003;17(3):173179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56. Yonkers, KA, Dyck, IR, Warshaw, M, Keller, MB. Factors predicting the clinical course of generalised anxiety disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 2000;176:544549.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57. Yonkets, KA, Warshaw, MG, Massion, AO, Keller, MB. Phenomenology and course of generalised anxiety disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 1996;168:308313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
58. Yonkers, KA, Dyck, IR, Keller, MB. An eight-year longitudinal comparison of clinical course and characteristics of social phobia among men and women. Psychiatr Serv. 2001;52(5):637643.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59. Salzman, C, Goldenberg, I, Bruce, SE, Keller, MB. Pharmacologic treatment of anxiety disotders in 1989 versus 1996: Results from the Harvard/Brown anxiety disorders research program. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62:149152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60. Eisen, JL, Goodman, WK, Keller, MB, et al. Patterns of remission and relapse in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a 2-year prospective study. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60(5):346351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61. Woodman, CL, Noyes, R Jr, Black, DW, Schlosser, S, Yagla, SJ. A 5-year followup study of generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1999;187(1):3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62. Thase, ME, Rush, AJ, Howland, RH, et al. Double-blind switch study of imipramine or sertraline treatment of antidepressant-resistant chronic depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002;59(3):233239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
63. Hirschmann, S, Dannon, PN, Iancu, I, Dolberg, OT, Zohar, J, Grunhaus, L. Pindolol augmentation in patients with treatment-resistant panic disorder: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2000;20(5):556559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64. Mavissakalian, MR. Sertraline in panic disorder: initial tteatment versus switch strategy. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2003;23(6):646651.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
65. Batlow, DH, Gorman, JM, Shear, MK, Woods, SW. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), imipramine, or their combination for panic disorder: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2000;283(19):25292536.Google Scholar
66. Power, KG, App, M, Simpson, RJ, Swanson, V, Wallace, LA, Sharp, D. A controlled comparison of cognitive-behaviour therapy, diazepam, and placebo, alone and in combination, for the treatment of generalised anxiety disorder. J Anx Dis. 1990;4:267293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
67. Bond, AJ. Treatment of generalized anxiety disorder with a short course of psychological therapy, combined with buspirone or placebo. J Affect Disord. 2002;72(3):267271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68. Blomhoff, S, Haug, TT, Hellstrom, K, et al. Randomised controlled general practice trial of sertraline, exposure therapy, and combined treatment in generalised social phobia. Br J Psychiatry. 2000;179:2330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
69. Uhlenhutli, EH, Baiter, MB, Ban, TA, Yang, K. International study of expert judgement on therapeutic use of benzodiazepines and othet psychotherapeutic medications: II. Pharmacotherapy of anxiety disorders. J Affect Disord. 1995;35:153162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
70. Uhlenhuth, EH, Baiter, MB, Ban, TA, Yang, K. International study of expert judgment on therapeutic use of benzodiazepines and othet psychotherapeutic medications: VI. Trends in recommendations for the pharmacotherapy of anxiety disorders, 1992–1997. Depress Anxiety. 1999;9(3):107116.3.0.CO;2-T>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
71. Resslet, KJ, Nemeroff, CB. Role of serotonergic and noradrenergic systems in the pathophysiology of depression and anxiety disorders. Depress Anxiety. 2000;12(Suppl 1):219.3.0.CO;2-4>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
72. Kent, JM, Mathew, SJ, Gorman, JM. Molecular targets in the treatment of anxiety. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;52(10):10081030.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
73. Perez, V, Gilaberte, I, Faries, D, Alvarez, E, Artigas, F. Randomised, doubleblind, placebo-controlled trial of pindolol in combination with fluoxetine antidepressant treatment. Lancet. 1997;349(9065):15941597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
74. Nelson, JC, Mazure, CM, Jatlow, PI, Bowers, MB Jr, Price, LH. Combining norepinephrine and serotonin reuptake inhibition mechanisms for treatment of depression: a double-blind, randomized study. Biol Psychiatry. 2004;55(3):296300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
75. Bauer, M, Adli, M, Baethge, C, et al. Lithium augmentation therapy in refractory depression: clinical evidence and neurobiological mechanisms. Can J Psychiatry. 2003;48(7):440448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
76. Nierenberg, AA, Papakostas, GI, Petersen, T, et al. Lithium augmentation of nortriptyline for subjects resistant to multiple antidepressants. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2003;23(1):9295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
77. Agid, O, Lerer, B. Algorithm-based treatment of major depression in an outpatient clinic: clinical correlates of response to a specific serotonin reuptake inhibitor and to triiodothyronine augmentation. Int J Neuropsychophormacol. 2003;6(1):4149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
78. Altshuler, LL, Bauer, M, Frye, MA, et al. Does thyroid supplementation accelerate tricyclic antidepressant response? A review and meta-analysis of the literature. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(10):16171622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
79. Goddard, AW, Brouette, T, Almai, A, Jetty, P, Woods, SW, Charney, D. Early coadministration of clonazepam with sertraline for panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58(7):681686.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
80. Pollack, MH, Simon, NM, Worthington, JJ, et al. Combined paroxetine and clonazepam treatment strategies compared to paroxetine monotherapy for panic disorder. J Psychopharmacol. 2003;17(3):276282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
81. Seedat, S, Stein, MB. Double-blind, placebo-controlled assessment of combined clonazepam with paroxetine compared with paroxetine monotherapy for generalized social anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65(2):244248.Google ScholarPubMed
82. Stein, MB, Sareen, J, Hami, S, Chao, J. Pindolol potentiation of paroxetine for generalized social phobia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(10):17251727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
83. Hirschmann, S, Dannon, PN, Iancu, I, Dolberg, OT, Zohar, J, Grunhaus, L. Pindolol augmentation in patients with treatment-resistant panic disorder: A double blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2000;20(5):556559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
84. Lakoski, JM, Aghajanian, GK. Effects of ketanserin on neuronal responses to serotonin in the prefrontal cortex, lateral geniculate and dorsal raphe nucleus. Neuropharmacology. 1985;24(4):265273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85. Szabo, ST, Blier, P. Effects of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) reuptake inhibition plus 5-HT(2A) receptor antagonism On the firing activity of norepinephrine neurons. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2002;302(3):983991.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
86. Hertel, P, Nomikos, GG, Schilstrom, B, Arborelius, L, and Svensson, TH. Risperidone dose-dependently increases extracellular concentrations of serotonin in the rat frontal cortex: role of α2-adrenoceptor antagonism. Neuropsychopharmocology. 1997:17:4455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
87. Shelton, RC, Tollefson, GD, Tohen, M, et al. A novel augmentation strategy for treating resistant major depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(1):131134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
88. Rapaport, M, Canuso, C, Loescher, A, Lasser, RA, Gharabawi, G. Preliminary results from ARISe-RD (augmentation with risperidone in resistant depression) trial. Presented at: Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association: May 2003; San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
89. Bystritsky, A, Ackerman, DL, Rosen, RM, et al. Augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder using adjunctive olanzapine: a placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65(4):565568.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
90. McDougle, CJ, Epperson, CN, Pelton, GH, Wasylink, S, Price, LH. A double blind, placebo-controlled study of risperidone addition in serotonin reuptake inhibitor-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57(8):794801.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
91. Francobandiera, G. Olanzapine augmentation of serotonin uptake inhibitors in obsessive-compulsive disorder: an open study. Can J Psychiatry. 2001;46(4):356358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
92. Atmaca, M, Kuloglu, M, Tezcan, E, Gecici, O. Quetiapine augmentation in patients with treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: a single-blind, placebo-controlled study. Int Clin Psychopharmocol. 2002;17(3):115119 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
93. Buchsbaum, MS, Hollander, E, Pallanti, S, Platholi, J, Bloom, R, Sood, E. Risperidone in refractory OCD: positron emission tomography imaging. Presented at: 42nd Annual Meeting of the New Clinical Drug Evaluation Unit: June, 2002; Boca Raton, FL.Google Scholar
94. Maina, G, Albert, U, Ziero, S, Bogetto, F. Antipsychotic augmentation for treatment resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: what if antipsychotic is discontinued? Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2003;18(1):2328.Google ScholarPubMed
95. Bartzokis, G. Risperidone in the treatment of CR-PTSD. Poster presented at: Annual Meeting of the Society of Biological Psychiatry; May 15–17, 2003; San-Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
96. Hamner, MB, Deitsch, SE, Brodrick, PS, Ulmer, HG, Lorberbaum, JP. Quetiapine treatment in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder: an open trial of adjunctive therapy. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2003;23(1):1520.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
97. Stein, MB, Kline, NA, Matloff, JL. Adjunctive olanzapine for SSRI-resistant combat-related PTSD: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159(10):17771779.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
98. Brawman-Mintzer, O, Knapp, R, Nietert, P. Placebo-controlled study of risperidone augmentation in treatment-resistant subjects with DSM-IV diagnosed generalized anxiety disorder. Poster presented at: the 16th Congress of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology; September 20–24,2003; Prague, Czech Republic.Google Scholar
99. Snyderman, SH, Rynn, MA, Rickels, K. Ziprasidone for treatment-refractory generalized anxiety diosrder: and open label, flexible dose pilot study. Poster presented at: The 44th Annual Meeting of the New Clinical Drug Evaluation Unit; June 2004; Phoenix, AZ.Google Scholar
100. Barnett, SD, Kramer, ML, Casat, CD, Connor, KM, Davidson, JR. Efficacy of olanzapine in social anxiety disorder: a pilot study. J Psychopharmacol. 2002;16(4):365368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
101. Tarsy, D, Baldessarini, RJ, Tarazi, FI. Effects of newer antipsychotics on extrapyramidal function. CNS Drags. 2002;16(1):2345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
102. Jeste, DV, Barak, Y, Madhusoodanan, S, Grossman, F, Gharabawi, G: International multisite double-blind trial of the atypical antipsychotics risperidone and olanzapine in 175 elderly patients with chronic schizophrenia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2004;12(1):49.Google Scholar
103. Lieberman, JA. Dopamine partial agonists: a new class of antipsychotic. CNS Drugs. 2004;18(4):251267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
104. Casey, DE, Carson, WH, Saha, AR, et al. Switching patients to aripiprazole from other antipsychotic agents: a multicenter randomized study. Psychopharmacobgy (Berl). 2003;166(4):391399 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
105. Emsley, R, Turner, HJ, Schronen, J, Botha, K, Smit, R, Oosthuizen, PP. A single-blind, randomized trial comparing quetiapine and haloperidol in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65(5):696701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
106. American Diabetes Association, American Psychiatric Association, American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, North American Association for the Study of Obesity. Consensus development conference on antipsychotic drugs and obesity and diabetes. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65(2):267272.Google Scholar
107. Kato, R. Sex-differences in drug metabolism. Drug Metabolism Reviews. 1974:3:131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
108. Giudicelli, JF, Tillement, JP. Influence of sex on drug kinetics in man. Clin Pharmacolkinet. 1977:2:157166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
109. Brawman-Mintzer, O. Sex differences in psychopharmacology. In: Komstein, SG, Clayton, AH, eds. Women's Mental Health: A Comprehensive Textbook. New York, NY: Guilford Publications, Inc; 2002:3134.Google Scholar
110. Frank, E, Shear, MK, Rucci, P, et al. Influence of panic-agoraphobic spectrum symptoms on treatment response in patients with recurrent major depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157(7):11011107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
111. Mundo, E, Bareggi, SR, Pirola, R, Bellodi, L. Effect of acute intravenous clomipramine and antiobsessional response to proserotonergic drugs: is gender a predictive variable? Biol Psychiatry. 1999;45(3):290294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
112. Davidson, JR, Rothbaum, BO, van der Kolk, BA, Sikes, CR, Farfel, GM. Multicenter, double-blind comparison of sertraline and placebo in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58(5):485492.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
113. Brady, K, Pearlstein, T, Asnis, GM, et al. Efficacy and safety of sertraline treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2000;283(14):18371844.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
114. Martenyi, F, Brown, EB, Zhang, H, Prakash, A, Koke, SC. Fluoxetine versus placebo in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2002;63(3):199206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
115. Burnham, D, Iyengar, M, Bellew, K, et al. Paroxetine: effective treatment for GAD regardless of patient gender, race, or GAD severity? Poster presented at: the Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; May 5–10, 2001; New Orleans, LA.Google Scholar
116. Linden, M, Lecrubier, Y, Bellantuono, C, Benkert, O, Kisely, S, Simon, G. The prescribing of psychotropic drugs by primary care physicians: an international collaborative study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999;19(2):132140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
117. Gentile, S. Clinical utilization of atypical antipsychotics in pregnancy and lactation. Ann Pharmacother. 2004;38(7):12651271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
118. Koren, G, Cohn, T, Chitayat, D, et al. Use of atypical antipsychotics during pregnancy and the risk of neural tube defects in infants. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159(1):136137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
119. Shaw, GM, Todoroff, K, Finnell, RH, Lammer, EJ. Spina bifida phenotypes in infants or fetuses of obese mothers. Teratology. 2000;61(5):376381.3.0.CO;2-J>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed