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Acting with One Voice: Producing Unanimism in Algerian Reformist Theater

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 January 2013

Jane E. Goodman
Jane E. Goodman*
Affiliation:
Indiana University, Department of Communication and Culture
*
janegood@indiana.edu
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Abstract

Scholars of democracy from Tocqueville to Habermas have long considered the proliferation of so-called voluntary associations as a sign of a flourishing civil society and as central to the rise of democratic modernity. I contend that the Algerian theatrical and musical associations of the reformist period anticipate another kind of civic history: a history of displays of unanimism in public life. I am interested in how and why Algerians learned to produce public displays of agreement for particular audiences (including themselves) at particular historical moments. I emphasize three factors that contributed to the production of unanimity: the achievement of tawḥīd or unity in the Islamic reform movement, vernacular practices of consensus-based argumentation, and French colonial legal and surveillance mechanisms. The essay engages theories of civil society, colonialism, and performance. It draws primarily on material from the French colonial archives for the city of Constantine, Algeria.

Type
Research Article
Information
Comparative Studies in Society and History , Volume 55 , Issue 1 , January 2013 , pp. 167 - 197
Copyright
Copyright © Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History 2013

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References

REFERENCES

Centre des Archives d'Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence, France Fonds Ministériels (FR CAOM) 93 4224. Archives du Département d'Alger (ALG Alger) 2I/41.Google Scholar
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Austin, J. L. 1962. How to Do Things with Words. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Bachetarzi, Mahiéddine. 1968. Mémoires 1919–1939, suivi de Etude sur le théâtre dans les pays islamiques. Algiers: Société Nationale d'Edition et de Distribution.Google Scholar
Bailey, F. G. 1965. Decisions by Consensus in Councils and Committees, with Special Reference to Village and Local Government in India. In Banton, Michael, ed., Political Systems and the Distribution of Power. London: Tavistock Publications, 1–20.Google Scholar
Bauman, Richard. 2011. Commentary: Foundations in Performance. Journal of Sociolinguistics 15: 5: 707–20.Google Scholar
Ben Achour, Bouziane. 2005. Le théâtre algérien: Une historie d'étapes. Oran, Algeria: Editions dar el Gharb.Google Scholar
Benhassine, Karima. 2005. La vie associative à Constantine. PhD diss., Department of History, Université Mentouri, Constantine, Algeria.Google Scholar
Bertrand, Romain, Briquet, Jean-Louis, and Pels, Peter, eds. 2006. The Hidden History of the Secret Ballot. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Bouzar-Kasbadji, Nadya. 1988. L'Emergence artistique algérienne au XXe siècle: Contribution de la musique et du théâtre algérois à la renaissance culturelle et à la prise de conscience nationaliste. Algiers, Algeria: Office des Publications Universitaires.Google Scholar
Brett, Michael. 1988. Legislating for Inequality in Algeria: The Senatus-Consulte of 14 July 1865. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 51, 3: 440–61.Google Scholar
Carlier, Omar. 1995. Entre nation et jihad: Histoire sociale des radicalismes algériens. Paris: Presses de Sciences Po.Google Scholar
Carlier, Omar. 1998. D'une guerre à l'autre: Le redéploiement de la violence entre soi. Confluences Méditerranée 25 (Spring): 123–37.Google Scholar
Chakrabarty, Dipesh. 2000. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha. 1993. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Cheniki, Ahmed. 2002. Le théâtre en Algérie: Histoire et enjeux. Aix-en-Provence, France: Edisud.Google Scholar
Cheniki, Ahmed. 2006. Vérités du théâtre en Algérie. Oran, Algeria: Editions Dar el Gharb.Google Scholar
Cheurfi, Ahmed. 2007. Dictionnaire encyclopédique de l'Algérie. Rouiba, Algeria: Editions ANEP.Google Scholar
Chikh, Bouamrane and Mohamed, Djidjelli. 2000. Scouts musulmans algériens (1935–1955). Algiers, Algeria: Dar El-Oumma.Google Scholar
Clancy-Smith, Julia A. 1994. Rebel and Saint: Muslim Notables, Populist Protest, Colonial Encounters (Algeria and Tunisia, 1800–1904). Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Cole, Joshua. 2009. “To Each His Own Audience”: Performing Politics and Culture in Interwar French Algeria. Paper delivered at the Middle East Studies Association annual meeting, 23 Nov., Boston, Mass.Google Scholar
Colonna, Fanny. 1993. Comment ruser avec l'uniformité. In Colonna, Fanny and Daoud, Zakya, Etre marginal au Maghreb. Paris: Editions Centre national de Recherche Scientifique.Google Scholar
Colonna, Fanny. 1995. Les Versets de l'invincibilité: Permanence et changements religieux dans l'Algérie contemporaine. Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques.Google Scholar
Colonna, Fanny, ed. 1996a. Algérie, la fin de l'unanimisme: Débats et combats des années 80 et 90. Monde Arabe Maghreb-Machrek (special issue) 154.Google Scholar
Colonna, Fanny. 1996b. Radiographie d'une société en mouvement. In Colonna, F., ed., Algérie, la fin de l'unanimisme: Débats et combats des années 80 et 90. Monde Arabe Maghreb-Machrek (special issue) 154: 4–10.Google Scholar
Colonna, Fanny and Daoud, Zakya, eds. 1993. Etre marginal au Maghreb. Paris: Editions Centre national de Recherche Scientifique.Google Scholar
Comaroff, Jean and Comaroff, John, eds. 1999. Civil Society and the Critical Imagination in Africa: Critical Perspectives. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Commins, David Dean. 1990. Islamic Reform: Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick and Stoler, Ann Laura. 1997. Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Cornell, Vincent J. 1998. Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Dermenghem, Emile. 1954. Le Culte des saints dans l'Islam maghrébin. Paris: Gallimard.Google Scholar
De Tocqueville, Alexis. 2003. Democracy in America and Two Essays on America. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Falk Moore, Sally. 1977. Political Meetings and the Simulation of Unanimity: Kilimanjaro 1973. In Moore, Sally Falk and Myerhoff, Barbara G., eds., Secular Ritual. Assen, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum & Comp., 151–72.Google Scholar
Fernandez, James W. 1965. Symbolic Consensus in a Fang Reformative Cult. American Anthropologist 67, 4: 902–29.Google Scholar
Glasser, Jonathan. 2012. Edmond Yafil and Andalusi Musical Revival in Early 20th-Century Algeria. International Journal of Middle East Studies 44: 671–92.Google Scholar
Goffman, Erving. 1959. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Goodman, Jane E. 2005. Berber Culture on the World Stage: From Village to Video. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Habermas, Jurgen. 1991 [1962]. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into the Category of Bourgeois Society. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.Google Scholar
El-Hakim, Sherif. 1978. The Structure and Dynamics of Consensus Decision-Making. Man, ns. 13, 1: 55–71.Google Scholar
Hann, Chris. 2004. In the Church of Civil Society. In Marlies Glasius, David Lewis, and Seckinelgin, Hakan, eds., Exploring Civil Society: Political and Cultural Contexts. London and New York: Routledge, 44–50.Google Scholar
Hann, Chris and Dunn, Elizabeth, eds. 1996. Civil Society: Challenging Western Models. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel. 1993. The Clash of Civilizations? Foreign Affairs (Summer): 22–49.Google Scholar
Journal Officiel de la République Française. 1901a. No. 177 (2 July):4025–27.Google Scholar
Journal Officiel de la République Française. 1901b. No. 221 (16–17 Aug.):5249–32.Google Scholar
Julien, Charles-André. 1964. Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine: La conquête et les débuts de la colonisation (1827–1871). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.Google Scholar
Kaddache, Mahfoud. 1993. Histoire du nationalisme algérien. Vol. I. Algiers, Algeria: Entreprise nationale du livre.Google Scholar
Karlström, Mikael. 1996. Imagining Democracy: Political Culture and Democratisation in Buganda. Africa 66, 4: 485–505.Google Scholar
Lanfry, Jacques, ed. 1959 [1946]. L'assemblée du Village. Vol. 280. Degezelle, J., trans. Fort National: Fichier de Documentation Berbère.Google Scholar
Liverani, Andrea. 2008. Civil Society in Algeria: The Political Functions of Associational Life. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mahé, Alain. 2001. Histoire de la Grande Kabylie XIXe–XXe Siècles: Anthropologie historique du lien social dans les communautés villageoises. Paris: Bouchène.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mamdani, Mahmood. 1996. Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Mamouchi, Brahim. n.d. Mémoires, Brahim Mamouchi, Professeur de Musique. Unpublished MS.Google Scholar
McDougall, James. 2006. History and the Culture of Nationalism in Algeria. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mehta, Uday S. 1999. Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Merad, Ali. 1999. Le Réformisme musulman en Algérie de 1925 à 1940: Essai d'histoire religieuse et sociale. Algiers, Algeria: Les Editions El-Hikma.Google Scholar
Merdaci, Abdelmadjid. 2007. Djam'iyat Ettarbiya Oua Etta'lim (1930–1957): Au Carrefour des Enjeux Identitaires. Insaniyat 35–36 (Jan–June): 97–107.Google Scholar
Merdaci, Abdelmadjid. 2008. Dictionnaire des musiques citadines de Constantine. Constantine, Algeria: Les Editions du Champ Libre.Google Scholar
Murphy, William. 1990. Creating the Appearance of Consensus in Mende Political Discourse. American Anthropologist 92, 1: 24–41.Google Scholar
Ouerdane, Amar. 1990. La question berbère dans le mouvement national algérien, 1926–1980. Quebec: Septentrion.Google Scholar
Rafael, Vicente L. 2000. White Love and Other Events in Filipino History. Durham and London: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Rahal, Malika. 2007. Prendre parti à Constantine: L'UDMA de 1946–1956. Insaniyat 35–36 (Jan.–June): 63–77.Google Scholar
Roberts, Hugh. 2003. The Battlefield, Algeria 1988–2002: Studies in a Broken Polity. London and New York: Verso.Google Scholar
Rosanvallon, Pierre. 2007. The Demands of Liberty: Civil Society in France since the Revolution. Goldhammer, Arthur, trans. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Roth, Arlette. 1967. Le théâtre algérien de langue dialectale, 1926–1954. Paris: Maspéro.Google Scholar
Ruedy, John. 1992. Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Sampson, Steven. 1996. The Social Life of Projects: Importing Civil Society to Albania. In Hann, Chris and Dunn, Elizabeth, eds., Civil Society: Challenging Western Models. London and New York, Routledge, 121–42.Google Scholar
Scheele, Judith. 2007. Recycling Baraka: Knowledge, Politics, and Religion in Contemporary Algeria. Comparative Studies in Society and History 49, 2: 304–28.Google Scholar
Singer, Milton. 1958. From the Guest Editor. Journal of American Folklore 71, 281: 191–204.Google Scholar
Snyder, Katherine A. 2001. Power and Politics among the Iraqw of Tanzania. Africa 71, 1: 128–48.Google Scholar
Wallerstein, Immanuel. 2003. Citizens All? Citizens Some! The Making of the Citizen. Comparative Studies in Society and History 3: 650–79.Google Scholar
Wehr, Hans. 1994 [1979]. The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic. Cowan, J. M., ed. Urbana, Ill.: Spoken Language Services.Google Scholar
White, Jenny B. 1996. Civic Culture and Islam in Urban Turkey. In Hann, Chris and Dunn, Elizabeth, eds., Civil Society; Challenging Western Models. London and New York: Routledge, 143–54.Google Scholar
Wilder, Gary. 2005. The French Imperial Nation-State: Négritude and Colonial Humanism between the Two World Wars. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Centre des Archives d'Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence, France Fonds Ministériels (FR CAOM) 93 4224. Archives du Département d'Alger (ALG Alger) 2I/41.Google Scholar
Ageron, Charles-Robert. 1979. Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine, Tome II: De l'insurrection de 1871 au déclenchement de la guerre de libération (1954). Paris: Presses universitaires de France.Google Scholar
Allalou, Selali Ali. 2004. “L'aurore du théâtre algérien (1926–1930). Oran, Algeria: Editions Dar el Gharb.Google Scholar
Austin, J. L. 1962. How to Do Things with Words. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Bachetarzi, Mahiéddine. 1968. Mémoires 1919–1939, suivi de Etude sur le théâtre dans les pays islamiques. Algiers: Société Nationale d'Edition et de Distribution.Google Scholar
Bailey, F. G. 1965. Decisions by Consensus in Councils and Committees, with Special Reference to Village and Local Government in India. In Banton, Michael, ed., Political Systems and the Distribution of Power. London: Tavistock Publications, 1–20.Google Scholar
Bauman, Richard. 2011. Commentary: Foundations in Performance. Journal of Sociolinguistics 15: 5: 707–20.Google Scholar
Ben Achour, Bouziane. 2005. Le théâtre algérien: Une historie d'étapes. Oran, Algeria: Editions dar el Gharb.Google Scholar
Benhassine, Karima. 2005. La vie associative à Constantine. PhD diss., Department of History, Université Mentouri, Constantine, Algeria.Google Scholar
Bertrand, Romain, Briquet, Jean-Louis, and Pels, Peter, eds. 2006. The Hidden History of the Secret Ballot. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Bouzar-Kasbadji, Nadya. 1988. L'Emergence artistique algérienne au XXe siècle: Contribution de la musique et du théâtre algérois à la renaissance culturelle et à la prise de conscience nationaliste. Algiers, Algeria: Office des Publications Universitaires.Google Scholar
Brett, Michael. 1988. Legislating for Inequality in Algeria: The Senatus-Consulte of 14 July 1865. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 51, 3: 440–61.Google Scholar
Carlier, Omar. 1995. Entre nation et jihad: Histoire sociale des radicalismes algériens. Paris: Presses de Sciences Po.Google Scholar
Carlier, Omar. 1998. D'une guerre à l'autre: Le redéploiement de la violence entre soi. Confluences Méditerranée 25 (Spring): 123–37.Google Scholar
Chakrabarty, Dipesh. 2000. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha. 1993. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Cheniki, Ahmed. 2002. Le théâtre en Algérie: Histoire et enjeux. Aix-en-Provence, France: Edisud.Google Scholar
Cheniki, Ahmed. 2006. Vérités du théâtre en Algérie. Oran, Algeria: Editions Dar el Gharb.Google Scholar
Cheurfi, Ahmed. 2007. Dictionnaire encyclopédique de l'Algérie. Rouiba, Algeria: Editions ANEP.Google Scholar
Chikh, Bouamrane and Mohamed, Djidjelli. 2000. Scouts musulmans algériens (1935–1955). Algiers, Algeria: Dar El-Oumma.Google Scholar
Clancy-Smith, Julia A. 1994. Rebel and Saint: Muslim Notables, Populist Protest, Colonial Encounters (Algeria and Tunisia, 1800–1904). Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Cole, Joshua. 2009. “To Each His Own Audience”: Performing Politics and Culture in Interwar French Algeria. Paper delivered at the Middle East Studies Association annual meeting, 23 Nov., Boston, Mass.Google Scholar
Colonna, Fanny. 1993. Comment ruser avec l'uniformité. In Colonna, Fanny and Daoud, Zakya, Etre marginal au Maghreb. Paris: Editions Centre national de Recherche Scientifique.Google Scholar
Colonna, Fanny. 1995. Les Versets de l'invincibilité: Permanence et changements religieux dans l'Algérie contemporaine. Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques.Google Scholar
Colonna, Fanny, ed. 1996a. Algérie, la fin de l'unanimisme: Débats et combats des années 80 et 90. Monde Arabe Maghreb-Machrek (special issue) 154.Google Scholar
Colonna, Fanny. 1996b. Radiographie d'une société en mouvement. In Colonna, F., ed., Algérie, la fin de l'unanimisme: Débats et combats des années 80 et 90. Monde Arabe Maghreb-Machrek (special issue) 154: 4–10.Google Scholar
Colonna, Fanny and Daoud, Zakya, eds. 1993. Etre marginal au Maghreb. Paris: Editions Centre national de Recherche Scientifique.Google Scholar
Comaroff, Jean and Comaroff, John, eds. 1999. Civil Society and the Critical Imagination in Africa: Critical Perspectives. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Commins, David Dean. 1990. Islamic Reform: Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick and Stoler, Ann Laura. 1997. Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Cornell, Vincent J. 1998. Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Dermenghem, Emile. 1954. Le Culte des saints dans l'Islam maghrébin. Paris: Gallimard.Google Scholar
De Tocqueville, Alexis. 2003. Democracy in America and Two Essays on America. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Falk Moore, Sally. 1977. Political Meetings and the Simulation of Unanimity: Kilimanjaro 1973. In Moore, Sally Falk and Myerhoff, Barbara G., eds., Secular Ritual. Assen, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum & Comp., 151–72.Google Scholar
Fernandez, James W. 1965. Symbolic Consensus in a Fang Reformative Cult. American Anthropologist 67, 4: 902–29.Google Scholar
Glasser, Jonathan. 2012. Edmond Yafil and Andalusi Musical Revival in Early 20th-Century Algeria. International Journal of Middle East Studies 44: 671–92.Google Scholar
Goffman, Erving. 1959. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Goodman, Jane E. 2005. Berber Culture on the World Stage: From Village to Video. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Habermas, Jurgen. 1991 [1962]. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into the Category of Bourgeois Society. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.Google Scholar
El-Hakim, Sherif. 1978. The Structure and Dynamics of Consensus Decision-Making. Man, ns. 13, 1: 55–71.Google Scholar
Hann, Chris. 2004. In the Church of Civil Society. In Marlies Glasius, David Lewis, and Seckinelgin, Hakan, eds., Exploring Civil Society: Political and Cultural Contexts. London and New York: Routledge, 44–50.Google Scholar
Hann, Chris and Dunn, Elizabeth, eds. 1996. Civil Society: Challenging Western Models. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel. 1993. The Clash of Civilizations? Foreign Affairs (Summer): 22–49.Google Scholar
Journal Officiel de la République Française. 1901a. No. 177 (2 July):4025–27.Google Scholar
Journal Officiel de la République Française. 1901b. No. 221 (16–17 Aug.):5249–32.Google Scholar
Julien, Charles-André. 1964. Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine: La conquête et les débuts de la colonisation (1827–1871). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.Google Scholar
Kaddache, Mahfoud. 1993. Histoire du nationalisme algérien. Vol. I. Algiers, Algeria: Entreprise nationale du livre.Google Scholar
Karlström, Mikael. 1996. Imagining Democracy: Political Culture and Democratisation in Buganda. Africa 66, 4: 485–505.Google Scholar
Lanfry, Jacques, ed. 1959 [1946]. L'assemblée du Village. Vol. 280. Degezelle, J., trans. Fort National: Fichier de Documentation Berbère.Google Scholar
Liverani, Andrea. 2008. Civil Society in Algeria: The Political Functions of Associational Life. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mahé, Alain. 2001. Histoire de la Grande Kabylie XIXe–XXe Siècles: Anthropologie historique du lien social dans les communautés villageoises. Paris: Bouchène.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mamdani, Mahmood. 1996. Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Mamouchi, Brahim. n.d. Mémoires, Brahim Mamouchi, Professeur de Musique. Unpublished MS.Google Scholar
McDougall, James. 2006. History and the Culture of Nationalism in Algeria. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mehta, Uday S. 1999. Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Merad, Ali. 1999. Le Réformisme musulman en Algérie de 1925 à 1940: Essai d'histoire religieuse et sociale. Algiers, Algeria: Les Editions El-Hikma.Google Scholar
Merdaci, Abdelmadjid. 2007. Djam'iyat Ettarbiya Oua Etta'lim (1930–1957): Au Carrefour des Enjeux Identitaires. Insaniyat 35–36 (Jan–June): 97–107.Google Scholar
Merdaci, Abdelmadjid. 2008. Dictionnaire des musiques citadines de Constantine. Constantine, Algeria: Les Editions du Champ Libre.Google Scholar
Murphy, William. 1990. Creating the Appearance of Consensus in Mende Political Discourse. American Anthropologist 92, 1: 24–41.Google Scholar
Ouerdane, Amar. 1990. La question berbère dans le mouvement national algérien, 1926–1980. Quebec: Septentrion.Google Scholar
Rafael, Vicente L. 2000. White Love and Other Events in Filipino History. Durham and London: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Rahal, Malika. 2007. Prendre parti à Constantine: L'UDMA de 1946–1956. Insaniyat 35–36 (Jan.–June): 63–77.Google Scholar
Roberts, Hugh. 2003. The Battlefield, Algeria 1988–2002: Studies in a Broken Polity. London and New York: Verso.Google Scholar
Rosanvallon, Pierre. 2007. The Demands of Liberty: Civil Society in France since the Revolution. Goldhammer, Arthur, trans. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Roth, Arlette. 1967. Le théâtre algérien de langue dialectale, 1926–1954. Paris: Maspéro.Google Scholar
Ruedy, John. 1992. Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Sampson, Steven. 1996. The Social Life of Projects: Importing Civil Society to Albania. In Hann, Chris and Dunn, Elizabeth, eds., Civil Society: Challenging Western Models. London and New York, Routledge, 121–42.Google Scholar
Scheele, Judith. 2007. Recycling Baraka: Knowledge, Politics, and Religion in Contemporary Algeria. Comparative Studies in Society and History 49, 2: 304–28.Google Scholar
Singer, Milton. 1958. From the Guest Editor. Journal of American Folklore 71, 281: 191–204.Google Scholar
Snyder, Katherine A. 2001. Power and Politics among the Iraqw of Tanzania. Africa 71, 1: 128–48.Google Scholar
Wallerstein, Immanuel. 2003. Citizens All? Citizens Some! The Making of the Citizen. Comparative Studies in Society and History 3: 650–79.Google Scholar
Wehr, Hans. 1994 [1979]. The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic. Cowan, J. M., ed. Urbana, Ill.: Spoken Language Services.Google Scholar
White, Jenny B. 1996. Civic Culture and Islam in Urban Turkey. In Hann, Chris and Dunn, Elizabeth, eds., Civil Society; Challenging Western Models. London and New York: Routledge, 143–54.Google Scholar
Wilder, Gary. 2005. The French Imperial Nation-State: Négritude and Colonial Humanism between the Two World Wars. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar