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Cross-Cultural Perceptions of Technology and Magic in the Ghost Dance, Boxer Uprising, and Maji Maji Rebellion

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 October 2023

Sean F. McEnroe*
Affiliation:
Southern Oregon University, Ashland, OR, USA

Abstract

This article explores the widespread phenomenon of anti-colonial movements that relied on magical rituals for protection against European weapons. It examines both the beliefs of the magical practitioners themselves, and those of colonizing observers whose fascination with stories of “primitive magic” contributed to their contrasting self-representations as superior beings in possession of technological wonders. North America’s Ghost Dance movement, China’s Boxer Rebellion, and East Africa’s Maji Maji uprising took place on three different continents but occurred almost simultaneously. The cases come from a narrow period of time, roughly 1890 to 1910, during a peak of colonial violence all over the world.

Type
The Outsides of Religion
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History

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64 Esherick, Origins, 235–40; Kuss, German Colonial Wars, 18; Elliott, Some Did It, 381–474; Silbey, Boxer Rebellion, 72–73, 88, 102–4.

65 Hoover, Memoirs, 47.

66 Ibid., 52; Ch’en, “Nature,” 292–93.

67 Hoover, Memoirs, 49.

68 This revisiting of the past at the sixty-year mark reflects the cycles of the traditional Chinese calendar; see Wasserstrom, “Never”; and Cohen, “Time,” 1625–26.

69 Esherick, Origins, 208.

70 Clark, Heaven in Conflict, 47, 50, 55.

71 Luke S. K. Kwong, “Oral History in China: A Preliminary Review,” Oral History Review 20, 1/2 (1992): 23–50, describes the project published in Lu Yao, ed., Shan-tung 1-ho-t’uan tiao-ch’a tsu-liao hsuan-pien [Selected materials from investigations into the Boxers in Shantung] (Tsi-nan, 1980).

72 Toni Pierenkemper and Richard Tilly, The German Economy during the Nineteenth Century (New York: Berghahn Books, 2004), 13–22; Thaddeus Sunseri, “The Baumwollfrage: Cotton Colonialism in German East Africa,” Central European Studies 34, 1 (2001): 31–55; Isaria N. Kimambo, Gregory H. Maddox, and Salvatory Nyanto, “Imperialism and Colonialism: The Scramble and Partition of Africa,” in A New History of Tanzania (Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota, 2017).

73 Kuss, German Colonial Wars, chs. 1, 3.

74 All later scholarship relies on G.C.K Gwassa and John Iliffe’s project. Bertram B. B. Mapunda, “Reexamining the Maji Maji War in Ungoni with a Blend of Archaelogy and Oral History,” in Leonard Giblin and Jamie Monson, eds., Maji Maji: Lifting the Fog of War (Boston: Brill, 2010), ch. 6. For pre-independence historiography, see A.R.W. Crosse-Upcott, “The Origin of the Majimaji Revolt,” Man 60 (1960): 71–73; Adas, Michael, Prophets of Rebellion: Millenarian Protest Movements against the European Colonial Order (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979), chs. 4, 6 Google Scholar; Wright, Marcia, “Maji Maji Prophecy and Historiography,” in Anderson, David M. and Johnson, Douglas H., eds., Revealing Prophets: Prophecy in East African History (London: James Currey, 1995), 124–42Google Scholar; Sunseri, Thaddeus, “The Majimaji and the Millennium: Abrahamic Sources and the Creation of a Tanzanian Resistance Tradition,” History in Africa 26 (1999): 365–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Felicitas Becker,“Traders, ‘Big Men’ and Prophets: Political Continuity and Crisis in the Maji Maji Rebellion in Southeast Tanzania,” Journal of African History 45, 1 (2004): 1–22; Schmidt, Heike, “(Re)Negotiating Marginality: The Maji Maji War and Its Aftermath in Southwestern Tanzania, ca. 1905–1916,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 43, 1 (2010): 2762 Google Scholar; Schaller, Dominik J., “From Conquest to Genocide: Colonial Rule in Southwest Africa and German East Africa,” in Moses, A. Dirk, ed., Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation and Subaltern Resistance (New York, Berghan, 2008)Google Scholar.

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76 Maji Maji Research Project, Collected Papers, John Iliffe, ed. (Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania: University College, 1969). Greenstein, Elijah, “Making History: Historical Narratives of the Maji Maji,” Penn History Review 17, 2 (2010): 6074 Google Scholar.

77 Records of the Maji Maji Rising, G.C.K. Gwassa and John Iliffe, eds. (Historical Association of Tanzania: University of Dar Es Salaam, East Africa Publishing House, 1975), interview of Mwaligombwike Mwakihongosi by Carlo J. Ngalalekumtwa, Kihemi village, near Kilolo, 27 Apr. 1968.

78 Carlo J. Ngalalekumtwa, “The Maji Maji in Uzungwa,” Maji Maji Research Project, no. 3/68/2/1 (1968), p. 1.

79 Interview of Segedalila Mwakihanz at Kihemi village near Kilolo, 27 Apr. 1968; interview of Mwaligombwike Mwakihongosi; interview with men drinking in Idete, 23 Apr. 1968.

80 Maji Maji Research Project, interview with Wupete Mwamagoda at Mtitu, 3 Apr. 1968; interview with men in Idete by J. R. Mlahagwa, Ukaguru, 23 Apr. 1968.

81 The words “hongo” and “honga” appear both capitalized and uncapitalized in the researchers’ transcripts. It is not always clear when the word(s) signify the person, the spirit, or the ritual drink.

82 Records of the Maji Maji Rising, 11.

83 Sunseri, “Statist Narratives,” 577–79.

84 Iliffe, John, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 181–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Adas, Prophets, 107–9; Kuss, German Colonial Wars, 58–60.

85 Mzee Ibrahim Uzengo interviewed by I.A.S. Mananga, Msongozi, 16 Apr. 1968; I.A.S. Mananga, “The Maji Maji Rising”; Mzee John Yogelo interviewed by I.A.S Mananga, 29 Mar. 1968, Msongozi; Carlo J. Ngalalekumtwa, “Maji Maji in Uzungwa,” Maji Maji Research Project no. 3, p. 2.

86 Mlachuma binti Simbo interviewed by I.A.S. Mananga, 12 Apr. 1968, Maji Maji Research Project; Adas, Prophets, 25–28; Harrison, Missionary’s Curse, ch. 1; James Giblin, “Taking Oral Sources beyond the Documentary Record of Maji Maji: The Example of the ‘War of Korosani’ at Yakobi, Nojombe,” in Leonard Giblin and Jamie Monson, eds., Maji Maji: Lifting the Fog of War (Boston: Brill, 2010), ch. 8.

87 Monson, JamieWar of Words,” in Giblin, Leonard and Monson, Jamie, eds., Maji Maji: Lifting the Fog of War (Boston: Brill, 2010), 3638 Google Scholar.

88 I.A.S. Mananga, “Conditions Before the Coming of the Maji Maji,” Maji Maji Research Project, No. 1/68/2/1, 1968.

89 Maji Maji Research Project, interview of men in Idete by J. R. Mlahagwa, Ukaguru, 23 Apr. 1968.

90 Bangimilimo Mwawubamba, son of Jume, interviewed by C. J. Ngalalekumtwa, 11 Apr. 1968, Kibenga, Southern Uzungwa.

91 Yehoswa Mwakikoti, Kimala, near Idete, interviewed by C. J. Ngalalekumtwam, 24 Apr. 1968.

92 Adas, Prophets, 32.

93 Manaanga, I.A.S., “The Maji Maji Rising at Msongozi,” Maji Maji Research Project; Andrew Lattas, “Telephones, Cameras and Technology in West New Britain Cargo Cults,” Oceania 70, 4 (2000): 325–44Google Scholar.

94 On language and trade, see Spear, Thomas, “Early Swahili History Reconsidered,” International Journal of African Studies 33, 2 (2000): 257–90Google Scholar.

95 David Northrup, “Vasco de Gama and Africa: An Era of Mutual Discovery, 1497–1800,” Journal of World History 9, 2 (1998): 189–211, 197–99; Kuss, German, 61, 102–7. I.A.A. Mananga, “The Maji Maji Rising at Msongozi,” Maji Maji Research Project no. 1/68/2/1; interview with Mzee Ibrahim Uzengo in Msongozi, 16 Apr. 1968.

96 Kuss, German,110–18; Mzee Ibrahim Uzengo interviewed by I.A.S. Mananga, Msongozi, 16 Apr. 1968; Records of the Maji Maji Rising, 13.

97 Schmidt, “(Re) Negotiating,” 27–62; Becker, “Traders,” 1–22; Sunseri, “Majimaji and the Millennium,” 365–78, 64–71.

98 Mlachuma binti Simbo interviewed by I.A.S. Mananga, 12 Apr. 1968.

99 Ibid.

100 Adas, Prophets, ch. 6.

101 Jones, Magic’s Reason, 136.

102 Wu, Christ to Confucius, 89; Emily Ogden, Credulity: A Cultural History of US Mesmerism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018); Sera-Shriar, Efram, Psychic Investigators: Anthropology, Modern Spiritualism, and Credible Witnessing in the Late Victorian Age (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2022)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

103 Edward Burnett Tylor’s writing typifies nineteenth-century notions of evolutionary disenchantment; Primitive Cultures (New York: Harpers, 1958[1871]). Twentieth-century deconstructions of the concept have their origin in Max Weber, “Science as Vocation,” in Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, trans. and ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946[1917]), 129–56; Jenkins, Richard, “Disenchantment, Enchantment and Re-Enchantment: Max Weber at the Millennium,” Max Weber Studies 1, 1 (2000):1132 Google Scholar.