Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-fv566 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-20T17:19:00.376Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Intellectuals and Society in Nineteenth-century India

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 June 2009

Shanti S. Tangri
Affiliation:
San Francisco State College

Extract

This paper describes the landmarks of Western education in India, the content of this education, the nature of social and political changes which resulted or were furthered by this education, the groups that imparted and the groups that received this education, and finally it compares the Indian with the Chinese and to some extent with the Japanese experience.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History 1961

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 East India Company Act, 1813, cited in Sharp, H., Selections from Educational Records, Part 1, 17811839, Bureau of Education, India, Superintendent Government Printing (Calcutta, 1920), p. 22.Google Scholar

2 Letter from General Committee of Public Instruction (1823), cited in Sharp, op. cit., p. 15.

3 Source: Nathan, R., Progress of Education in India, 1897–1898—1901–1902, Office of the Director General of Education (Calcutta, 1904), p. 167.Google Scholar

4 Ibid., p. 117.

5 Ibid., p. 61, Table 37. The totals in the original source are inaccurately given as 13,942 and 6790 for Intermediate and B.A.

6 Ibid., p. 60, Table 36.

7 Shils, Edward, ‘Intellectuals, Public Opinion, and Economic Development’, World Politics, X, No. 2 (01. 1958), pp. 233Google Scholar, 236, 238–39; also Weiner, Myron, ‘Struggle Against Power: Notes on Indian Political Behavior’, World Politics, VIII, No. 3 (04 1956), pp. 392403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

8 Census of India, I, Subsidiary Table VII, p. 317.Google Scholar

9 Nathan, op. cit., pp. 21–22.

10 Ibid., p. 60.

11 Ray, Prithwis Chandra, Life and Times of C. R. Das: The Story of Bengal's Self-Expression (London, 1927), p. 2.Google Scholar

12 Bhattacharya, Bijay, ‘The Evolution of Education in 19th Century Bengal’, The Radical Humanist, XXII, No. 32 (Calcutta, 08. 10, 1958), p. 383.Google Scholar

13 Wallbank, T. Walter, A Short History of India and Pakistan, from Ancient Times to the Present (New York, 1958), p. 75.Google Scholar

14 Dutt, Romesh C., England and India: A Record of Progress During a Hundred Years, 1785–1885 (London, 1897), p. 56.Google Scholar

15 Wallbank, op. cit., p. 75.

16 Woodruff, Phillip, The Men Who Ruled India: The Founders, I (London, 1953), pp. 248–65.Google Scholar

17 Wallbank, op. cit., p. 75.

18 O'Malley, L. S. S., Modern India and the West, p. 110, quoted in Wallbank, op. cit., p. 75.Google Scholar

19 Trotter, India Under Queen Victoria, quoted in Rev. Morrisson, John, New Ideas in India, During the Nineteenth Century (Edinburgh, 1906), p. 63.Google Scholar

20 Mason, Caroline Atwater, Lux Christi: An Outline Study of India—A Twilight Land (New York, 1902), p. 189.Google Scholar

21 Woodruff, op. cit., pp. 248–65.

22 Morrison, , New Ideas in India, During the Nineteenth Century (Edinburgh, 1906), pp. 3738.Google Scholar

23 On the Effect of the Native Press in India‘, The Friend of India, I, No. 1 (09 1820), pp. 130–54; ’On the Progress and Present State of the Native Press in India‘Google Scholar, Ibid., IV, No. 12 (May 1825), pp. 138–56.

24 Thomas, , The History and Prospects of British Education in India (Cambridge, 1891), pp. 129–38.Google Scholar

25 Davis, Kingsley, The Population of India and Pakistan (Princeton, N. J.), 1951, pp. 178–79; and Wallbank, op. cit., pp. 72–73.Google Scholar

26 Rev. Huizinga, Henry, Missionary Education in India, University of Michigan, Ph.D. thesis, privately published (Ann Arbor, 1909), pp. 2425.Google Scholar

27 From Reginald Coupland's figure of 4,000 British administrative personnel (Wallbank, op. cit., p. 21), and Woodruff s figure of 988 (op. cit., II, The Guardians, p. 363), for I.C.S.

28 Encyclopaedia Brittanica, quoted in Rev. Menzel, W. (Ed.) I will Build My Church: The Story of Our Indian Mission and How It Became a Church (Philadelphia, 1943), p. 33.Google Scholar

29 Quoted in Nurullah, Syed and Naik, J. P., A History of Education in India (Bombay, 1951), p. 178.Google Scholar

30 Thomas, F. W., op. cit., p. 89.Google Scholar

31 Huizinga, , op. cit., p. 135.Google Scholar

32 Table computed from Julius Richter, A History of Missions in India, translated by Moore, Sydney H. (New York, 1908), pp. 319–20.Google Scholar

33 Huizinga, , op. cit., pp. 93, 119, 132.Google Scholar

34 Richter, , op. cit., pp. 2795.Google Scholar

35 Mason, , op. cit., pp. 187–89.Google Scholar

36 Law, Narendra Nath, Promotion of Learning in India by Early European Settlers (London, 1915), p. 40.Google Scholar

37 This is the theme, for example, of John Master's filmed novel The Bhowani Junction.

38 Quoted in Davis, , op. cit., p. 187.Google Scholar

39 Ibid., p. 118.

40 Ibid., p. 188.

41 Ibid., p. 155, Table 22.

42 Ibid., p. 159.

43 Morrison, , op. cit., p. viii.Google Scholar

44 Richter, , op. cit., p. 321.Google Scholar

45 Huizinga, , op. cit., p. 199.Google Scholar

46 Sir George Anderson and Rt. Rev. Whitehead, Henry, Christian Education in India (London, 1932), p. 8.Google Scholar

47 Davis, , op. cit., p. 185.Google Scholar

48 See Fisher's Memoir, cited in Sharp, op. cit., p. 193. Fisher reported that there were 175,089 Hindus and 13,561 Muslim students in Madras schools in between 1822 and 1826 in a population of 12,594,193. In other words, the Hindu-Muslim ratio of students was 13: 1, which in all probability was higher than their population ratio. A similar impression results from the spotty surveys in other areas and writings relating to this period. See, for example, Thomas, op. cit., who stated that ‘Hindu elementary schools existed in most of the villages of India’. p. 6, but thought that Muslims were less enthusiastic for education, pp. 1–12, 34, 60, 73, 93–94, 125–26.

49 Indian Education Commission, 1881–82, Report, p. 275, quoted in McCully, Bruce Tiebout, English Education and the Origins of Indian Nationalism (New York, 1940), p. 180.Google Scholar

50 Government of India, Bureau of Education, Indian Education in 1922–1923, Central Publication Branch (Calcutta, 1924), p. 38.Google Scholar

51 Figures for 1865–66 and 1881–82, McCully, op. cit., p. 179, for 1915–16, Education in India in 1915–1916, Bureau of Education, India, Central Publications Branch (Calcutta, 1917), p. 38.Google Scholar

52 Morrison, , op. cit., p. 145Google Scholar; Thomas, , op. cit., p. 93.Google Scholar

53 McCully, , op. cit., p. 183.Google Scholar

54 Thomas, , op. cit., p. 50.Google Scholar

55 Report of the General Committee of Public Instruction of the Presidency of Fort William in Bengal for the year 1839–1840; Huttman, G. H., Bengal Mily (Calcutta, 1841), p. xliv. The year after, 420 of 533 students paid.Google Scholar

56 Olcott, Mason, Village Schools in India (Calcutta, 1926), p. 183.Google Scholar

57 Boutros, F., quoted in Sharp, op. cit., p. 7Google Scholar; also Report, Supra, Huttman, G. H., Bengal Mily (Calcutta, 1841), p. lviii–lxi.Google Scholar

58 Davis, , op. cit., p. 155.Google Scholar

59 Education in India, 1915–16, loc. cit.

60 Huizinga, , op. cit., p. 90. Other sources confirm this distribution.Google Scholar

61 Education in India, op. cit. (1930–31), p. 46.

62 Cowan, Minna G., The Education of Women of India (New York, 1912), p. 49.Google Scholar

63 Morrison, , op. cit., pp. 5360.Google Scholar

64 West, Michael, Bilingualism, Occasional Reports, No. 13, Bureau of Education, India, Central Publications Branch (Calcutta, 1926), p. 29.Google Scholar

65 Huizinga, , op. cit., p. 59Google Scholar. Thomas, , op. cit., p. 102. Yearly increase of children of school age—200,000; of children in school—70,000.Google Scholar

66 Nurullah, Syed and Naik, J. P., A Student's History of India (London, 1949), p. 191.Google Scholar

67 Woodruff, , op. cit., pp. 355–62.Google Scholar

68 See Dutt, , op. cit., p. 87.Google Scholar

69 Ibid., p. 73.

70 Computed from Davis, ., op. cit., p. 99, Table 35.Google Scholar

71 Bose, Pramatha N., A History of Hindu Civilization During British Rule, I & II (London, 1894), pp. 94101Google Scholar; Morrison, , op. cit., pp. 4749, 132–33; also for short accounts of the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj.Google Scholar

72 East India: Progress and Condition During the Year 1917–1918, 54th No. (London, 1919), pp. 109–10.Google Scholar

73 Woodruff, , op. cit., p. 363.Google Scholar

74 Wallbank, , op. cit., pp. 7172.Google Scholar

75 Ibid., p. 82.

76 Ibid., p. 94.

77 Dutt, , op. cit., p. 155.Google Scholar

78 Quoted in McCully, , op. cit., p. 180.Google Scholar

79 Quoted in Morrison, , op. cit., p. 147.Google Scholar

80 Quoted in McCully, , op. cit., p. 183.Google Scholar

81 ‘Proclamation of King George V’, Dec. 1919, in Ray, , op. cit., Appendix G., p. 385.Google Scholar

82 Wang, Y. Chu, ‘Education and the Westernized Elite in China; 1901–1948’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, III, pp. 395–6.Google Scholar

83 Bennet, John W. and McKnight, Robert K., ‘Approaches of the Japanese Innovator to Cultural and Technical Change’, in Hoselitz, Bert F. (ed.), Agrarian Societies in Transition, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (Philadelphia, 1956), pp. 101–13.Google Scholar

84 The Indian Year Book (1914) estimates this figure to be between 2000 and 3000 (5% women) and thereafter uses the figure 2000 every year till 1947. Before that time the numbers of the Indian student community had ‘multiplied ten or twelve fold in the last quarter of the century, the increase being especially rapid since 1904 and 1905’ (p.336). Progress of Education in India, 9th Quinquennial Review (1922–1927), Government of India (Calcutta, 1929), gives the figures of 1644 for the year 19251926 (p. 81). The 8th Quinquennial Review mentions 121 Indian students ‘in residence at British Universities preparing for arts and science degrees’ in 1922 (I, 1923, p. 70). Figures for Indian students educated in Britain are therefore much more likely to represent the upper limit.Google Scholar