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Patron—Client Relations as a Model of Structuring Social Exchange
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 03 June 2009
Extract
The study of patronage and of patron-client relations has come lately to the fore in anthropology, political science and sociology, and has exerted a great fascination for scholars in these spheres. From a topic of relatively marginal concern it has become a central one, closely connected to basic theoretical problems and controversies in all the social sciences.
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- Fresh Applications of Familiar Models
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References
The origins of this paper are in a seminar on Comparative Patron-Client Relations in the Department of Sociology of The Hebrew University, given in 1974–75 by S. N. Eisenstadt and J. Azmon, in a framework of seminars on Comparative Civilizations. Two papers based on this seminar have already been published: Burkolter, V., The Patronage System, Theoretical Remarks, Basel, Social Strategies, 1976Google Scholar; and Brumer, Anita, ‘O Sistema Paternalista no Brasil,” Revista do Instituto de Filosofia e Ciencias Humanas da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sol, IV (1976), 57–79.Google Scholar Prof. J.S. Coleman of the University of Chicago and Prof. R. Breiger of Harvard University have commented in detail on earlier drafts of this paper, and problems have been discussed by S.N. Eisenstadt with Patti Cox and Beth Hevens at Harvard. Preliminary presentations of this paper have been made by the senior author at Cambridge University and the University of Manchester. He is greatly indebted to the discussions there.
1 Thus in anthropology they were connected with the study of such phenomena as ritual kinship or friendship, and anthropologists tended to concentrate on the institutionalized types of personal patron-client relationship, above all in tribal settings or in small rural communities. Among the best-known studies are Mintz, S.W. and Wolf, E.R., ‘An Analysis of Ritual Coparenthood (Compadrazgo),”Google ScholarSouthwestern Journal of Anthropology, 6:4 (Winter 1950). 341–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Foster, G.M., ‘Cofradia and Compadrazgo in Spain,”Google Scholaribid., 9:1 (Spring 1953), 1–28; Tegnaeus, H., Blood Brothers, New York, Philosophical Library, 1952Google Scholar; Ishino, I., ‘The Oyabun-Kobun: A Japanese Ritual Kinship Institution,” American Anthropologist, 55:1 (1953). 695–707CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pitt-Rivers, J., The People of the Sierra, London, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1954Google Scholar; idem.‘Ritual and Kinship in Spain,” Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences, Series 2:20 (1958), 424–31Google Scholar; Kenny, M., A Spanish Tapestry: Town and Country in Castile, New York, Harper and Row, 1966 (1961)Google Scholar; Hutchinson, H.W., Village and Plantation Life in Northeastern Brazil, Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1957Google Scholar; Freed, S.H., ‘Fictive Kinship in a North Indian Village,” Ethnology, 2 (1963), 86–104CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Foster, G.M.. ‘The Dyadic Contract: A Model for the Social Structure of a Mexican Peasant Village,” American Anthropologist, 63:6 (1961), 1173–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and idem. ‘The Dyadic Contract in Tzintzuntzan II: Patron-Client Relationship,” ibid., 65:6 (1963), 1280–94. In sociology, the study of patronage was closely related to ‘primary” groups and relations in more formalized settings such as bureaucracies. See the Hawthorne Studies in the 1930s: Roethlisberger, F.J. and Dickson, W.J., Management and the Worker: An Account of a Research Program, conducted by the Western Electric Co., Hawthorne Works, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1970 (1939)Google Scholar; Warner, L.W. and Lunt, P.S., The Social Life of a Modern Community, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1941Google Scholar; Whyte, W.F., Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian Slum, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1958Google Scholar; Shils, E., ‘Primordial, Personal, Sacred and Civil Ties,”Google Scholar in idem.Center and Periphery, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1975, 111–26Google ScholarPubMed; idem. 'Primary Groups in American Army,” in ibid., 384–405; Katz, E. and Lazarfeld, P.F., Personal Influence, Glencoe, IL, The Free Press, 1955Google Scholar. In political science the study of patronage was initially concentrated on political machines and ‘bossism” in more developed societies, gradually extending to the study of corruption in developing countries. See for instance Carmen, H.J. and Luthin, R.J., Lincoln and the Patronage, New York, 1943Google Scholar; Sorauf, F.J., ‘Patronage and Party,” Midwest Journal of Political Science, 3:2 (05 1959)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wilson, J.Q., ‘The Economy of Patronage,” Journal of Political Economy, 69:4 (08. 1961), 369–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mandelbaum, S., Boss Tweed's New York, New York, Wiley and Sons, 1965Google Scholar; Banfield, E. and Wilson, J.Q., City Politics, Cambridge, Harvard University Press and M.I.T. Press, 1963Google Scholar. In the literature on those phenom- ena in developing countries at this stage see Wraith, R. and Simkins, E., Corruption in Developing Countries, London, G. Allen and Unwin, 1963Google Scholar; Smith, M.G., ‘Historical and Cultural Conditions of Political Corruption among the Hausa,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 6:1 (01. 1964), 164–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Greenstone, J.D., ‘Corruption and Self-interest in Kampala and Nairobi,”Google Scholaribid., 8:1 (Jan. 1966), 199–210; Nash, M., ‘Party Building in Upper Burma,” Asian Survey, 3:4 (04 1963), 197–202CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and idem, The Golden Road to Modernity, New York, Wiley and Sons, 1965Google Scholar; Lande, C.H., Leaders, Factions and Parties: The Structure of Philippine Politics, New Haven, Yale University Press, Southeast Asian Studies, 1965.Google Scholar
2 For illustrations of the conceptualization of patron-client relationships since the late sixties see for instance Wolf, E., “Kinship, Friendship, and Patron-Client Relationships in Complex Societies.” in Banton, M., ed., The Social Anthropology of Complex Societies, London, Tavistock. 1966Google Scholar, Monographs, A.S.A., 1–22Google Scholar; Weingrod, A., ‘Patrons, Patronage, and Political Parties,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 7:4 (10. 1968), 377–400CrossRefGoogle Scholar; the issue of Sociologische Gids that deals with patron-client relations. 16:6 (11–12. 1969)Google Scholar; Lemarchand, R. and Legg, K., ‘Political Clientelism and Development: A Preliminary Analysis,” Comparative Politics, 4:2 (01. 1972), 149–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stuart, W.T., ‘The Explanation of Patron-Client Systems: Some Structural and Ecological Perspectives,” in Strickon, A. and Greenfield, S.. eds.. Structure and Process in Latin America: Patronage, Clientage and Power Systems, Albuquerque, New Mexico University Press, 1972, 19–42Google Scholar; Kaufman, R., ‘The Patron-Client Concept and Macropolitics: Prospects and Problems,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 16:3 (07 1974), 284–308CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Grazziano, L., A Conceptual Framework for the Study of Clientelism, New York, Cornell University Western Societies Program Occasional Papers, 1974/1975Google Scholar: La Fontaine, J.S.. ‘Unstructured Social Relations,” The West African Journal of Sociology and Political Science, 1:1 (10. 1975), 51–81Google Scholar; Gellner, E. and Waterbury, J., eds., Patrons and Clients in Mediterranean Societies, London, Duckworth, 1977Google Scholar, esp. the following papers: Gellner, E., ‘Patrons and clients,” 1–6Google Scholar; Scott, J., ‘Patronage or exploitation?,” 21–40Google Scholar; Weingrod, A., ‘Patronage and power,” 41–52Google Scholar; and Waterbury, J., ‘An attempt to put patrons and clients in their place.” 329–42Google Scholar; Davis, J., People of the Mediterranean. An Essay in Comparative Social Anthropology, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977, ch. 4Google Scholar; Schmidt, S.W., Guasti, L., Lande, C.H. and Scott, J.C., eds., Friends, Followers, and Factions, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1976.Google Scholar
3 The wide occurrence of patron-client relationships encompassed a great variety of links. Multipurpose, diffusely defined clusters of multiple dyadic ties were found between landholders and landless strata in search of share-cropping arrangements in the agrotowns of Italian latifundist Mezzogiorno; in Central Italy Mezzadrian signori and mezzadri paternalistic patronage; in Spain, where the link was either normatively anchored in the moral values of the pueblos and confused with friendship or was oppressive and labeled as caciquismo; in the Middle Eastern smiyya patronage with its stress on the social visibility of the patron and his power in institutional markets, as shown in Egyptian futuwwa as ibn el-balad, Lebanese muqati'ji and Iraqi al-Taba 'iyya. Patrons can use the links in many markets or center their use upon a single institutional sphere as happened with South Italian political single clientelismo of the Notables or with the Spanish caciques. 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Oligarchical Politics and the System of Caciquismo in the Luso-Hispanic World, Albuquerque, New Mexico University Press, 1973Google Scholar; el-Messiri, S.. ‘The changing role of the futuwwa in the social structure of Cairo,” in Gellner, and Waterbury, , Patrons and Clients, 239–54Google Scholar; Khalaf, S., ‘Changing forms of political patronage in Lebanon,”Google Scholaribid. 185–206; and Rassam, A.. ‘Al-Taba'iyya: Power, patronage and marginal groups in Northern Iraq,”Google Scholaribid. 157–66. More organizationally oriented patterns are found in Southern Italy, where clientelismo and party-directed bossism were strengthened in a continuing political competition, a widening distribution of wealth and the transference of the locus of political articulation to higher levels of political contest. Such pyramidal chain-to-center structure also characterized Spanish caciquismo after the 1874 Restoration. The pattern becomes more impersonal and instrumental and less dependent on ideological prescriptions of solidarity. Unipurpose patterns are found also in Greece and in Latin America, focused either in the political sphere as in Spain or in the instrumental sphere; they are centered on the preferential access of patrons to second-order resources and are built on connections with ruling parties and State bureaucracies or on officeholding. Such links are reported as well for the Middle East (in Morocco for instance) and for Southeast Asian and black African unions and political arenas; in these cases there seem to be greater pressures for congruence between the incumbents” standing in subcollectivities and their position in institutional markets, as well as less ideological strain in the contractation and functioning of the ties. Similar patterns are found in the Japanese yuryokusha political patronage, in a sphere conceived as marginal for the societal and cosmic order and in a frame of weakened primordial territorial and kinship ties. See for instance Aya, R., The Missed RevolutionGoogle Scholar; Costa, J., ‘Ohgarquia y caciquismo como la forma actual de gobierno en Espana,”Google Scholar in idem, Oligarquia v caciquismo. Colectivismo agrario y olros escritos. Madrid. Alianza Editorial, 1967, 15–45Google Scholar; Pike, F.B., Hispanismo. 1898–1936, Notre Dame, University of Notre Dame Press. 1971Google Scholar; Romero-Maura, J.. ‘Caciquismo as a political system,” in Gellner, and Waterbury, , Patrons and Clients, 53–62Google Scholar; Kern, R., The CaciquesGoogle Scholar; Campbell, J. K.. 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Patron-Client Democracy, New York, Knopf, 1972 (1957)Google Scholar; and Flanagan, S.C., ‘Voting Behavior in Japan: The Persistence of Traditional Patterns.” Comparative Political Studies, 1:3 (10. 1968), 391–412CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Zuckerman, A., Political Clienteles in Power: Party Factions and Cabinet Coalitions in Italy, Beverly Hills, Sage Publications, 1975Google Scholar. Greater coerciveness and violence is found in Sicilian mafiosi brokerage between urban absentee landlords and the Western Sicilian hinterland; mafiosi competed among themselves and vis-à-vis lower-standing sectors for greater shares of wealth, while attempting to undermine the control of landlords. A similar trend was found in Northeast Brazilian patrimonial relations between the owners of plantations and sugar-refineries and rural workers; in Egyptian futuwwa as baltagi, and in the case of Lebanese qabadat acting on behalf of zu'ama. See Blok, A., The Mafia of a Sicilian Village, 1860–1960. 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An example of the first is found in the Cyrenaican link between Saadi families and Mrabtin as-Sadgan lacking land and water rights; an example of corporated incumbency to the patron role on a civil-based criterion is reported for the Republican State's foreign clientelae to civitas liberae; on a territorial kinship-like base in Japanese dozoku. The corporate character of incumbency was linked to the semi- or quasi-legal statement of the high dissimilarity of the roles, freeing these from their propensity to instability according to changes in the market positions of the incumbents. Similar are some ritualized patterns, often described as clientelistic: the Japanese oyabun-kobun and the Christian compadrazgo. The link found among the Interlacustrine Bantu of East Africa resembles this aspect; here the ceremonial formalization makes the link no longer vulnerable to the transactional actual interests of the partners. On this range of patterns see among others Peters, E.L., ‘The Tied and the Free (Lybia),” in Peristiany, J., ed., Contributions to Mediterranean Sociology, Paris-The Hague, Mouton, 1968, 167–88Google Scholar; Badian, E., Foreign Clientelae (246–70 B.C.), Oxford, Clarendon Press. 1958Google Scholar; Beardsley, R.K. et al. , Village Japan, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1959Google Scholar; Ishino, I., ‘The Oyabun-Kobun,” Nakane, C., Japanese Society, London, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1970Google Scholar; Foster, G.M.. ‘Cofradia and Compadrazgo'Google Scholar; Mair, L.P., ‘Clientship in East Africa,” Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines, 2:6 (1961), 315–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Steinhart, F., ‘Vassal and Fief in three Lacustrine Kingdoms,”Google Scholaribid., 7:28 (1967), 606–23. Patron-client ties and similar relations were reported in traditional China, India, Ireland, Hungary, the East Arctic, Nepal, Malta, and the Balkans. 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49 An example of the coercive trend can be found in S. el-Messiri, ‘The changing role of the futuwwa.” On the second possibility see among others Gilmore, D., ‘Patronage and Class Conflict in Southern Spain,” Man, N.S., 12: 3–4(1978), 446–58.Google Scholar
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51 See for instance Heidenheimer, A., ed., Political Corruption: Readings in Comparative Analysis, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970.Google Scholar
52 For these trends in pluralistic societies see Dahl, R. A., Polyarchy, Participation and Opposition, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1971;Google Scholar and idem, ‘Patterns of Opposition,” in idem, ed., Political Opposition in Western Democracies, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1966,332–47Google Scholar, and ‘Epilogue,” in ibid., 387–401. For the Soviet Union see Fainsod, M., Smolensk under Soviet rule, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1958Google Scholar. For the caste systems see Bailey, F. G., Caste and the Economic Frontier, Manchester University Press, 1957;Google ScholarIsaacs, H. R., India's Ex-Untouchables, Bombay, Asia publishing House, 1965;Google ScholarBéteille, A., ‘The Future of the Backward Classes,”Google Scholar in idem, Castes: Old and New, London, Asia Publishing House, 1969,103–45;Google ScholarPubMed and David, K., ‘Hierarchy and Equivalence in Jaffna.'Google Scholar
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54 Hobsbawm, E.Primitive Rebels, Studies in Archaic Forms of Social Movements in the 19th and 20th Centuries, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1971 (1959);Google Scholaridem, Bandits, London, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1969;Google ScholarPubMed Cf. Blok, A., ‘On Brigandage, with Special Refer- ence to Peasant Mobilization,” Sociologische Gids, 18:2 (1971), 208–16.Google Scholar
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56 Scott, J. C., ‘The Erosion of Patron-Client Bonds and Social Change in Rural Southeast Asia,” Journal of Asian Studies, 32:1 (10 1972), 5–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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