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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 October 2016
Far too often studies in contemporary history have concentrated on national stories. By contrast, this article analyses wartime discourses about and practices against fascism in France, Germany and Italy in a comparative and – as far as possible – transnational perspective. By looking at individual biographies some general aspects of socialist anti-fascism, as well as similarities and differences within anti-fascism, shall be identified and start to fill the gap which Jacques Droz left in 1985 when he ended his Histoire de l'antifascisme en Europe with the outbreak of the Second World War. To visualise the transnational dimension of socialist anti-fascism both in discourse and practice different categories shall be considered. These include historical analyses and projects for the post-war order in letters, newspapers, periodicals, pamphlets and books, acts of solidarity like mutual aid networks set up by groups and institutions and forms of collaboration in resistance movements.
1 For Germany see, for example, Grunenberg, Antonia, Antifaschismus – Ein deutscher Mythos (Reinbek: Rowohlt, 1993)Google Scholar. For Italy see Rusconi, Gian Enrico, Resistenza e postfascismo (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1995)Google Scholar; Scoppola, Pietro, 25 aprile. Liberazione (Turin: Einaudi, 1995)Google Scholar and De Luna, Giovanni and Revelli, Marco, Fascismo, antifascismo. Le idee, le identità (Scandicci: La Nuova Italia, 1995)Google Scholar. Several fine books concentrate mostly on the national French or British sphere: Vergnon, Gilles, L'Antifascisme en France. De Mussolini à Le Pen (Rennes: Presse Universitaires de Rennes, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hähnel-Mesnard, Carola, ed., L'antifascisme revisité. Histoire, idéologie, mémoire (Paris: Kimé, 2009)Google Scholar and Copsey, Nigel and Olechnowicz, Andrzek, eds., Varieties of Anti-Fascism. Britain in the Inter-War Period (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The promising title by Cooke, Philip and Shephed, Ben H., eds., European Resistance in the Second World War (Barnsley: Pen & Sword Praetorian Press, 2013)Google Scholar presents mostly national perspectives.
2 De Bernardi, Alberto and Ferrari, Paolo, eds., Antifascismo e identità europea (Roma: Carocci, 2004)Google Scholar; Palma, Francesco Di, Liberaler Sozialismus in Deutschland und Italien im Vergleich. Das Beispiel Sopade und Giustizia e Libertà (Berlin: Metropol, 2010)Google Scholar; Horn, Gerd-Rainer, European Socialists Respond to Fascism: Ideology, Activism, and Contingency in the 1930s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996)Google Scholar; Späth, Jens, ‘Was heißt Antifaschismus nach 1945? Das Beispiel der italienischen Sozialisten in westeuropäischer Perspektive’, Archiv für Sozialgeschichte, 53 (2013), 269–304 Google Scholar.
3 Traverso, Enzo, ‘Intellectuals and Anti-Fascism: For a Critical Historization’, New Politics, 9 (2004), 1–15 Google Scholar.
4 Droz, Jacques, Histoire de l'antifascisme en Europe 1923–1939 (Paris: La Découverte, 1985), 12 Google Scholar.
5 For some of his ideas see Rabinbach, Anson, ‘Freedom for Thälmann! The Comintern and the Orchestration of the Campaign to Free Ernst Thälmann, 1933–1939’, in García, Hugo, Yusta, Mercedes, Tabet, Xavier and Clímaco, Cristina, eds., Rethinking Antifascism: History, Memory and Politics, 1922 to the Present (New York: Berghahn, 2016), 23–42 Google Scholar.
6 Rabinbach, Anson, ‘Introduction: Legacies of Antifascism’, New German Critique, 67 (1996), 3–17 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
7 For the making process in transnational history see Hofmeyr, Isabel, ‘AHR Conversation: On Transnational History’, American Historical Review, 111, 5 (2006), 1443–4Google Scholar.
8 Deutsch, Julius, Antifaschismus! Proletarische Wehrhaftigkeit im Kampfe gegen den Faschismus (Wien: Verlag der Wiener Volksbuchhandlung, 1926)Google Scholar; idem, Le Fascisme en Europe. Rapport présenté à la Commission internationale de défense contre le fascisme. Préface de Julius Deutsch (Bruxelles: Maison d’édition L'Eglantine, 1930). For other examples see Adrian Zimmermann, ‘The International Labour Movement's Struggle against Fascism. Some Starting Points for a Research Project in Transnational Labour History’, paper given at the 10th European Social Science History conference, Vienna, 23–26 April 2014.
9 Conseil général de P. O. E., Inauguration du monument Matteotti le 11 Septembre 1927 à Bruxelles, Fonds Léon Blum de Moscou, Inventaire 4, dossier 61, cartes 6–7, Centre d'histoire Science Po, Paris (CHScPo).
10 Hoegner, Wilhelm, Der Volksbetrug der Nationalsozialisten. Rede des Reichstagsabgeordneten Dr. Wilhelm Hoegner (Berlin: J. H. W. Dietz Nachf., 1930), 14 Google Scholar, 16.
11 In line with Schieder, Wolfgang, Der italienische Faschismus (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2010), 7 CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Wippermann, Wolfgang, Faschismus. Eine Weltgeschichte vom 19. Jahrhundert bis heute (Darmstadt: Primus, 2009), 11 Google Scholar. I suggest a real rather than an ideal type of fascism as a European and even global phenomenon that was characterised and represented by Italian fascism and also included National Socialism as German fascism. For a more detailed comparative perspective on similarities and differences see Schieder, Wolfgang, Faschistische Diktaturen. Studien zu Italien und Deutschland (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2008)Google Scholar.
12 See Vergnon, Gilles, Les gauches européennes après la victoire nazie. Entre planisme et unité d'action (1933–1934) (Paris: l'Harmattan, 1997)Google Scholar.
13 On this transnational consciousness within the European left, see Horn, European socialists, 117–36; on the radicalisation of Social Democrats out of the party's executive in Prague, see idem, ‘Radicalism and Moderation within the German Social Democracy in Underground and Exile, 1933–1936’, German History, 15, 2 (1997), 200–20.
14 See Groppo, Bruno, ‘Entre immigration et exil: les réfugiés politiques italiens dans la France de l'entre-deux-guerres’, Matériaux pour l'histoire de notre temps, 44 (1996), 27–35 CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Rabinbach, Anson, ‘Paris, Capital of Anti-Fascism’, in Breckman, Warren et al., eds, The Modernist Imagination: Intellectual History and Critical Theory (New York: Berghahn, 2010), 183–209 Google Scholar.
15 Léon Blum, ‘Les socialistes français et italiens ont commémoré hier l'assassinat de Matteotti’, Le Populaire, 10 June 1934.
16 Grzesinski, Albert, Im Kampf um die deutsche Republik. Erinnerungen eines Sozialdemokraten, Kolb, Eberhard, ed. (München: Oldenbourg, 2009)Google Scholar, doc. 5, Albert Grzesinski to Max Kukielczynski, 6 Oct. 1946, 367.
17 Wildt, Michael, ‘Die Kraft der Verblendung. Der Sozialdemokrat Max Brauer im Exil’, in Krohn, Claus-Dieter, Winckler, Lutz and Köpke, Wulf, eds., Exil und Widerstand (München: edition text + kritik, 1997), 162–79Google Scholar, here 169; Grzesinski, Kampf, Grzesinski to Kukielczynski, 6 Oct. 1946, 368.
18 Fladhammer, Christa and Wildt, Michael, eds., Max Brauer im Exil. Briefe und Reden aus den Jahren 1933–1946 (Hamburg: Hans Christians, 1994), 30–1Google Scholar.
19 Wolfgang Schieder, ‘Tod in Bagnoles-de-l'Orne. Die Ermordung der italienischen Antifaschisten Carlo und Nello Rosselli am 9.6.1937’, in Heinen, Armin and Hüser, Dietmar, eds., Tour de France. Eine historische Rundreise. Festschrift für Rainer Hudemann (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2008), 377–89Google Scholar, quotation 379.
20 Anonymus, Die Hitlerpropaganda. Ihre Methoden, ihre Mittel und ihre Gefahr, Centre de Documentation, Strasbourg-Cronenbourg, Albert Krauth, Archiv der sozialen Demokratie, Bonn (AdsD), Nachlass Ernst Roth. On German anti-fascists abroad in this period see Palmier, Jean-Michel, Weimar en exil. Le destin de l’émigration intellectuelle allemande antinazie en Europe et aux États-Unis (Paris: Payot, 1988)Google Scholar, vol. I.
21 See Langkau-Alex, Ursula, Deutsche Volksfront 1932–1939. Zwischen Berlin, Paris, Prag und Moskau, 3 vols. (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2004)Google Scholar; Paul, Gerhard, Max Braun: eine politische Biographie (St. Ingbert: Röhrig, 1987)Google Scholar.
22 Vigreux, Jean, Le Front populaire 1934–1938 (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2011)Google Scholar; Magro, Ángel Bahamonde, ed., ‘La España del Frente Popular’, Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez, 41, 1 (2011), 9–159 Google Scholar and Rapone, Leonardo, ‘L'età dei fronti popolari e la guerra (1934–1943)’, in Sabbatuci, Giovanni, ed., Storia del socialismo italiano (Rome: Il Poligono, 1981)Google Scholar, vol. IV, 179–411.
23 Le Populaire, 21 Nov. 1934.
24 Wildt, Kraft, 169.
25 Grzesinski, Kampf, Grzesinski to Kukielczynski, 6 Oct. 1946, 368.
26 Willy Brandt, Appell an die deutsche Jugend zum, 1 Mai 1937, AdsD, Willy-Brandt-Archiv (WBA), A5, Sign. 7. See also Canali, Giulia, L'antifascismo italiano e la guerra civile spagnola (San Cesario di Lecce: Manni, 2004)Google Scholar; zur Mühlen, Patrick von, Spanien war ihre Hoffnung: die deutsche Linke im spanischen Bürgerkrieg 1936 bis 1939 (Bonn: Verlag Neue Gesellschaft, 1983)Google Scholar.
27 For the history of the LSI still see Braunthal, Julius, Geschichte der Internationale (Hannover: J. H. W. Dietz Nachf., 1963)Google Scholar, vol. II, especially 284–514; Kowalski, Werner, ed., Geschichte der Sozialistischen Arbeiter-Internationale (1923–1940) (Berlin: Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, 1985)Google Scholar. For the Youth International see Uellenberg, Wolfgang and Eppe, Heinrich, ‘70 Jahre Sozialistische Jugendinternationale’, Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, 35 (1977), 38–47 Google Scholar.
28 Langkau-Alex, Deutsche Volksfront, vol. II, 177–205; and Braunthal, Geschichte der Internationale, vol. II, 466.
29 Willy Brandt, Rede des Vertreters des SPD-Parteivorstandes in Berlin vor Funktionären der Berliner SPD, 12 Mar. 1948, AdsD, WBA, A 3, 41. See also Graham, Helen, Socialism and War: the Spanish Socialist Party in Power and Crisis, 1936–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
30 See Uellenberg and Eppe, Jugendinternationale, 45.
31 See Berstein, Serge, Léon Blum (Paris: Fayard, 2006), 513–29Google Scholar; Racine-Furlaud, Nicole, ‘Le Comité de vigilance des intellectuels antifascistes (1934–1939). Antifascisme et pacifisme’, Le Mouvement social, 101 (1977), 87–113 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, here 99–107. However, one should note that the Spanish Republic was supported initially by the Labour Party: see Buchanan, Tom, The Spanish Civil War and the British Labour Movement (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 37–72 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
32 Aglan, Alya, Le Temps de la Résistance (Arles: Actes Sud, 2008), 14–6Google Scholar.
33 It is impossible to give exact numbers because not all emigrants had been registered officially and even if they had been registered many documents got lost during war. According to recent studies there might have been about 9,000 German speaking political refugees in France in 1939; as far as the social democrats are concerned one might propose a low four-figure number. See Schneider, Michael, In der Kriegsgesellschaft: Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung 1939 bis 1945 (Bonn: Dietz, 2014), 901 Google Scholar.
34 See, for example, the Comité National Catholique de secours aux réfugiés d'Espagne, the Ligue Française pour la Défense des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen or all the interventions of Salomon Grumbach with different authorities; all to be found in Fonds Salomon Grumbach: une plongée dans la vie des réfugiés du Reich en France 1939–1940. Bibliothèque de l'Alliance israélite universelle, Paris (BAIU), AP 17/004, AP 17/006, AP 17/023, AP 17/033, AP 17/034, AP 17/076, AP 17/082. Quotation in AP 17/190, carte 3.
35 See for instance Giuseppe Saragat to Léon Blum, 16 Dec. 1939, asking him to renew his working permission, CHScPo, Fonds Léon Blum de Moscou, Inventaire 2, dossier 334, carte 3; Giuseppe Emanuele Modigliani to Léon Blum, Marseille, 25 Sept. 1940, Pietro Nenni to Léon Blum, L'Aude, Narbonne, 22 Sept. 1940 and Palalde, 27 Feb. 1941; all Archives Nationales, Site Pierrefitte-sur-Seine (AN), Archives personales, Fonds Léon Blum, 570 AP 19.
36 See Suzanne Posty to Salomon Grumbach, Paris 14 Dec. 1939, Fonds Salomon Grumbach, BAIU, AP 17/138, carte 16.
37 Erich Ollenhauer, Brief an Léon Blum als Sekretär der Internationalen Sozialistischen Jugend, Montrouge, 27 May 1940, CHScPo, Fonds Léon Blum de Moscou, Inventaire 2, dossier 169, carte 2.
38 See Uellenberg and Eppe, Jugendinternationale, 45; on the impact of the Pact on international anti-fascism see Bayerlein, Bernhard H., Der Verräter, Stalin, bist Du! Vom Ende der linken Solidarität; Komintern und kommunistische Parteien im Zweiten Weltkrieg 1939–1941 (Berlin: Aufbau-Verlag, 2008)Google Scholar.
39 Piketty, Guillaume, ‘Pierre Brossolette, un résistant socialiste’, in Guidoni, Pierre and Verdier, Robert, eds., Les socialistes en Résistance (1940–1944) (Paris: ERREUR PERIMES S. Arslan, 1999), 84–5Google Scholar; André Ferrat, Curriculum Vitae, [no date], L'Office Universitaire de Recherche Socialiste (L'OURS), Paris, 5 APO 1; Foscolo Lombardi, Volantini e manifesti lotta della liberazione, Istituto Storico della Resistenza in Toscana, Florence, Archivio Foscolo Lombardi, b. 22.
40 Fladhammer and Wildt, Brauer, 288, note 1.
41 See also Buchanan, Tom, ‘Anti-Fascism and Democracy in the 1930s’, European History Quarterly, 32, 1 (2002), 39–57 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bresciani, Marco, ‘Socialism, Antifascism and Anti-Totalitarianism: The Intellectual Dialogue (and Discord) between Andrea Caffi and Nicola Chiaramonte (1932–1955)’, History of European Ideas, 40, 7 (2014), 984–1003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
42 Pietro Nenni, Relazione PSI, Parigi, Dec. 1939, Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Rome (ACS), Archivio Nenni, b. 87, fasc. 2183, quotations 1, 2, 5.
43 See Bollettino del Nuovo Avanti, November 1941, in: ibid.
44 For the transnational activities of socialists and trade unionists especially in Great Britain see Lipgens, Walter, ed., Documents on the History of European Integration, II, Plans for European Union in Great Britain and in Exile, 1939–1945 (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1986), 653–98Google Scholar.
45 von zur Mühlen, Cf. Patrick, Fluchtweg Spanien – Portugal. Die deutsche Emigration und der Exodus aus Europa 1933–1945 (Bonn: Dietz, 1992)Google Scholar; Loring, Marianne, Flucht aus Frankreich 1940. Die Vertreibung deutscher Sozialdemokraten aus dem Exil (Frankfurt a. M.: Fischer, 1996)Google Scholar; Seghers, Anna, Transit (Berlin: Aufbau, 1993)Google Scholar, first published as a book in 1948.
46 See Paul, Gerhard and Mallmann, Klaus-Michael, Widerstand und Verweigerung im Saarland 1935–1945, III, Milieus und Widerstand. Eine Verhaltensgeschichte der Gesellschaft im Nationalsozialismus (Bonn: Dietz, 1995), 308 Google Scholar.
47 For a closer social analysis I refer to Klaus-Michael Mallmann, ‘Frankreichs fremde Patrioten. Deutsche in der Résistance’, in Claus-Dieter Krohn et al., Exil und Widerstand, 48–58; still noteworthy for its early publication is Michel, Henri, ‘La Résistance allemande dans la Résistance européenne’, Revue d'Histoire de la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale, 36 (1959), 87–102 Google Scholar.
48 Cf. Paul and Mallmann, Milieus, 309–11. On the history of a Maquis see Vergnon, Gilles, Le Vercors. Histoire et mémoire d'un maquis (Paris: Editions de l'Atelier, 2002)Google Scholar.
49 Cf. Sattler an die Geheime Staatspolizei Neustadt a.d. Weinstraße, Berlin, 28 Sept. 1939, Landesarchiv (LA) Speyer, H 91, Nr. 566; Gouvernement militaire en Allemagne, Questionnaire Ernst Philipp Roth, 3 Apr. 1948, LA Speyer, R 18, Nr. 290; Der Oberbürgermeister der Stadt Frankenthal (Pfalz). Betreuungsstelle ‘Opfer des Faschismus’, 20 Feb. 1950, LA Speyer, R 19, Nr. 11862. For the topic in general see Peschanski, Denis, Des étrangers dans la Résistance (Paris: L'Atelier, 2002)Google Scholar.
50 Erich Ollenhauer to Ernst Roth, London, 17 Apr. 1945, AdsD, Nachlass Ernst Roth, Varia.
51 For European initiatives see notes 58–63; for socialist cooperation see, for example, Braunthal, Geschichte der Internationale, III, 19–119 and 167–77; see also Lorenz, Einhart, ed., Willy Brandt, Berliner Ausgabe, II, Zwei Vaterländer, Deutsch-Norweger im schwedischen Exil – Rückkehr nach Deutschland 1940–1947 (Bonn: Dietz, 2000), 88–104 Google Scholar, 115–205, 215–30.
52 For minor writings in exile, see Kritzer, Peter, Wilhelm Hoegner. Politische Biographie eines bayerischen Sozialdemokraten (München: Süddeutscher Verlag, 1979), 124–9Google Scholar.
53 See Institut für Zeitgeschichte München, Munich (IfZ), Nachlass Wilhelm Hoegner, ED 120-2-18+19: Otto Braun to Hoegner, Ascona, 6 June 1944; ED 120-2-26+27: Braun to Ritzel, Ascona, 21 Sept. 1944; ED 120-13-138-147; ED 120-12-70-91: Das Demokratische Deutschland, Bern/Leipzig 1945; see also Hoegner, Wilhelm, Der schwierige Aussenseiter. Erinnerungen eines Abgeordneten, Emigranten und Ministerpräsidenten (München: Isar, 1959), 166–72Google Scholar.
54 Pietro Nenni, Programma del PSI per il periodo dopo il fascismo, 1943, ACS, Archivio Nenni, b. 87, fasc. 2183.
55 Edgardo Longoni to Pietro Nenni, 10 Aug. 1944, Fondazione Pietro Nenni, Rome (FPN), Archivio Nenni, b. 44, fasc. 2024, letter 55.
56 PSI, Federazione di Lecce, Niccolò Coppola to Pietro Nenni, 7 Sept. 1944, FPN, Archivio Nenni, b. 44, fasc. 2024, letter 94.
57 Ibid. letter 69.
58 The integral text in English translation is reported in Lipgens, Walter, ed., Documents on the History of European Integration, I, Continental Plans for European Union, 1939–1945 (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1985), 471–84Google Scholar.
59 See on this and the following, ibid. 659–97; and Aglan, Le Temps de la Résistance, 191–222.
60 See ibid.
61 Lipgens, Documents, vol. I, 423–4.
62 Ibid. 449–50.
63 Ibid. 685–6.
64 Willy Brandt, Protokoll, Anlage 5a: Wiedererrichtung der sozialistischen Internationale, AdsD, WBA, A5, Sign. 10 B, Emigration 1943.
65 See Riccardo Luzzatto, correspondance with Pietro Nenni, ACS, Archivio Pietro Nenni, b. 31, fasc. 1535.
66 Informationen der SPD-Gruppe in Frankreich: Auf dem Wege zur Erneuerung der Internationale, 1, AdsD, Nachlass Ernst Roth, Varia.
67 See Théofilakis, Fabien, Les prisonniers de guerre allemands. France, 1944–1949 (Paris: Fayard, 2014)Google Scholar.
68 SFIO, Comité Directeur: Procès-verbaux des réunions du Comité Directeur, L'OURS, 13 Nov. 1944–15 Mar. 1945, for the events mentioned above see 11, 55–6, 93, 94, 104.
69 For a short biography see AdsD, Nachlass Franz Glauben.
70 Fédération des Groupes Socialistes Étrangers en France, Section du Rhône (Lyon), Rapport sur la visite de John Hynd à Paris, 28 Mar. 1945, AdsD, Nachlass Franz Glauben, Mappe 1.
71 Franz Glauben to Jesús Zamora Solana, June 1945, ibid.
72 Lipgens, Documents, vol. I, 684–5.
73 For the German Anti-fascist Committees see Lutz Niethammer, Bosdorf, Ulrich and Brandt, Peter, eds., Arbeiterinitiative 1945. Antifaschistische Ausschüsse und Reorganisation durch Arbeiterbewegung in Deutschland (Wuppertal: Peter Hammer Verlag, 1976)Google Scholar.
74 Willy Brandt, Tätigkeitsbericht der Internationalen Gruppe demokratischer Sozialisten, Stockholm, 31 Dec. 1944, AdsD, WBA, A5, Sign. 12.
75 See Pietro Nenni's article in the Avanti! on upcoming tasks for European socialism, reported by Landesleitung der SPD in Schweden: Sozialistische Tribüne, n. 5, May 1945, AdsD, Nachlass Peter Blachstein, Mappe 47.
76 Morgan Philipps to Pietro Nenni, 11 May 1945, ACS, Archivio Nenni, b. 36, fasc. 1118, letter 3.
77 See for instance Pietro Nenni to Ernest Bevin, 5 Sept. 1945 and Ernest Bevin to Pietro Nenni, 5 April 1946, ACS, Archivio Nenni, B. 19, fasc. 1118.
78 Denis Healey, Message to be taken to the German Social Democratic Party by comrades Ollenhauer and Heine, 31 Jan. 1946, AdsD, Bestand Kurt Schumacher, Mappe 66.
79 For Greece see Braunthal, Geschichte der Internationale, vol. III, 136–43; for the Spanish question see Buchanan, Tom, ‘Receding Triumph: British Opposition to the Franco Regime, 1945–1959’, Twentieth Century British History, 12, 2 (2001), 163–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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81 Kurt Schumacher, Politische Richtlinien für die S.P.D. in ihrem Verhältnis zu den anderen politischen Faktoren, 8 Aug. 1945, in Schumacher, Kurt, Reden—Schriften—Korrespondenzen 1945–1952, Albrecht, Willy, ed. (Berlin: Dietz, 1985), 276–7Google Scholar. See now also Imlay, Talbot C., ‘“The Policy of Social Democracy is Self-Consciously Internationalist”: The German Social Democratic Party's Internationalism after 1945’, The Journal of Modern History, 86 (2014), 81–123 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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83 Kurt Schumacher and Erich Ollenhauer, 28 Mar. 1951, Telegrams of the SPD party executive to the Spanish and Italian socialists, ibid., Mappe 54.
84 Günther Markscheffel to Kurt Schumacher, 29 Nov. 1946; Erich Ollenhauer to Günter Markscheffel, Hannover, 6 March 1946; Günther Markscheffel to Fritz Heine and Erich Ollenhauer, on the road, 10 Aug. 1946; all ibid., Mappe 67.
85 See the invitation of the SPD to the SFIO, Ollenhauer an Markscheffel, Hannover, 2 Apr. 1946, ibid; the SFIO-delegation for the congress of the PSIUP in Rome in July 1944, SFIO, Procès-verbaux des réunions du Comité Directeur, L'OURS, 162.
86 See Guy Mollet, ‘Chi sono i fascisti’, Battaglia socialista, 24 Nov. 1946, 2.
87 Ollenhauer to Markscheffel, Hannover, 2 Apr. 1946, AdsD, Bestand Kurt Schumacher, Mappe 67.
88 Otto Meister to Erna and Josef Lang, Essen, 20 Dec. 1947, AdsD, Nachlass Erna und Josef Land, Mappe 25.
89 Peter Blachstein, ‘Solidarität’, Neue Welt Kalender, 1947, AdsD, Nachlass Peter Blachstein, Mappe 10.
90 See for the French–German case Delori, Mathias, ‘La mémoire de l'exil et de la résistance antifasciste comme ciment d'une identité supranationale’, Cahiers d'histoire. Revue d'histoire critique, 100 (2007), 99–117 Google Scholar.
91 Quoted after Jean-Paul Cahn, ‘Le parti social-démocrate allemand (S.P.D.) et la France (1954–1958)’, 3 vols., Thèse de doctorat d'État, Université de Strasbourg II, 1992, vol. I, 29.
92 Roth was to intervene at the commemoration ceremony for Marx Dormoy on 29 July at Montélimar; see Boucher to Ernst Roth, Valence, 18 July 1945, AdsD, Nachlass Ernst Roth, Varia. Max Braun and other Saarland socialists were honoured by the first ordinary congress of the Sozialdemokratische Partei des Saarlands on 30 March 1946: Saarbrücken, Landesarchiv Saarbrücken, Nachlass Richard Kirn, Mappe 4.
93 See Carlé to Glauben, 27 Dec. 1945 concerning documents in order to prove the participation in the Résistance and in the French army, AdsD, Nachlass Franz Glauben, Mappe I; see also Willy Brandt to Kurt Schumacher, 13 Jan. 1946, AdsD, WBA, A5, Sign. 14.
94 Peter Blachstein, ‘Ignazio Silone – Rufer der Freiheit’, Hamburger Echo, 28 Oct. 1947.
95 See Peter Blachstein, Manuscript on the Spanish Civil War, 20 June 1956; ‘Franco‘s Jubiläum’, June/July 1956, AdsD, Nachlass Peter Blachstein, Mappe 12; see also Willy Brandt, Zehn Jahre Franco, Hannover, 25 Mar. 1949, AdsD, WBA, A3, Mappe 45A.
96 Sachakten der SPD-Landesorganisation Hamburg 1948/49, AdsD, Nachlass Peter Blachstein, Mappe 24.
97 Droz, Histoire, 11.
98 Albert Grzesinski to Max Kukielczynski, 6 Oct. 1946, in Grzesinski, Kampf, 373–4.
99 Meyer, Kristina, Die SPD und die NS-Vergangenheit 1945–1990 (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2015)Google Scholar.
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101 Lipgens, Documents, vol. I, Giustizia e Libertà, ‘Partigiani di tutta Europa, unitevi!’, in Il Partigiano Alpino (Piedmont edn.), I, 6, (Dec. 1944), 545–6.
