Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-11T06:00:22.411Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Exposure to maternal pre- and postnatal depression and anxiety symptoms: Risk for major depression, anxiety disorders, and conduct disorder in adolescent offspring

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 November 2013

Cristie Glasheen*
Affiliation:
RTI International
Gale A. Richardson
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
Kevin H. Kim
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh School of Education
Cynthia A. Larkby
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
Holly A. Swartz
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
Nancy L. Day
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Cristie Glasheen, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, P.O. Box 12194, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709; E-mail: cglasheen@rti.org.

Abstract

This study evaluated whether exposure to maternal pre- or postnatal depression or anxiety symptoms predicted psychopathology in adolescent offspring. Growth mixture modeling was used to identify trajectories of pre- and postnatal depression and anxiety symptoms in 577 women of low socioeconomic status selected from a prenatal clinic. Logistic regression models indicated that maternal pre- and postnatal depression trajectory exposure was not associated with offspring major depression, anxiety, or conduct disorder, but exposure to the high depression trajectory was associated with lower anxiety symptoms in males. Exposure to medium and high pre- and postnatal anxiety was associated with the risk of conduct disorder among offspring. Male offspring exposed to medium and high pre- and postnatal anxiety had higher odds of conduct disorder than did males with low exposure levels. Females exposed to medium or high pre- and postnatal anxiety were less likely to meet conduct disorder criteria than were females with lower exposure. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to examine the effect of pre- and postnatal anxiety trajectories on the risk of conduct disorder in offspring. These results suggest new directions for investigating the etiology of conduct disorder with a novel target for intervention.

Type
Regular Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. (1983). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist and Revised Child Behavior Profile. Burlington. VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Allen, N. B., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1998). Prenatal and perinatal influences on risk for psychopathology in childhood and adolescence. Developmental Psychopathology, 10, 513529.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic criteria from DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Araya, R., Hu, X., Heron, J., Enoch, M. A., Evans, J., Lewis, G., et al. (2009). Effects of stressful life events, maternal depression and 5-HTTLPR genotype on emotional symptoms in pre-adolescent children. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 150B, 670682.Google ScholarPubMed
Austin, M. P. (2004). Antenatal screening and early intervention for “perinatal” distress, depression and anxiety: where to from here? Archives of Women's Mental Health, 7, 16.Google Scholar
Austin, M. P., Hadzi-Pavlovic, D., Leader, L., Saint, K., & Parker, G. (2005). Maternal trait anxiety, depression and life event stress in pregnancy: Relationships with infant temperament. Early Human Development, 81, 183190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Austin, M. P., Leader, L. R., & Reilly, N. (2005). Prenatal stress, the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, and fetal and infant neurobehaviour. Early Human Development, 81, 917926.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Avan, B., Richter, L. M., Ramchandani, P. G., Norris, S. A., & Stein, A. (2010). Maternal postnatal depression and children's growth and behaviour during the early years of life: Exploring the interaction between physical and mental health. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 95, 690695.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barker, E. D., Copeland, W., Maughan, B., Jaffee, S. R., & Uher, R. (2012). Relative impact of maternal depression and associated risk factors on offspring psychopathology. British Journal of Psychiatry, 200, 124129.Google Scholar
Barnett, B., Schaafsma, M. F., Guzman, A. M., & Parker, G. B. (1991). Maternal anxiety: A 5-year review of an intervention study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 423438.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauer, D. J., & Curran, P. J. (2003). Distributional assumptions of growth mixture models: Implications for overextraction of latent trajectory classes. Psychological Methods, 8, 338363.Google Scholar
Beck, C. T. (1998). The effects of postpartum depression on child development: A meta-analysis. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 12, 1220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beeghly, M., Weinberg, M. K., Olson, K. L., Kernan, H., Riley, J., & Tronick, E. Z. (2002). Stability and change in level of maternal depressive symptomatology during the first postpartum year. Journal of Affective Disorders, 71, 169180.Google Scholar
Berkman, L. F., & Syme, S. L. (1979). Social networks, host resistance, and mortality: A nine-year follow-up study of Alameda County residents. American Journal of Epidemiology, 109, 186204.Google Scholar
Boyd, J. H., Weissman, M. M., Thompson, W. D., & Myers, J. K. (1982). Screening for depression in a community sample: Understanding the discrepancies between depression symptom and diagnostic scales. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 11951200.Google Scholar
Boyer, P. (2000). Do anxiety and depression have a common pathophysiological mechanism? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Supplimental, 2429.Google Scholar
Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Gotlib, I. H. (1993). Psychopathology and early experience: A reappraisal of retrospective reports. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 8298.Google Scholar
Brown, L., & Wright, J. (2003). The relationship between attachment strategies and psychopathology in adolescence. Psychology & Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 76, 351367.Google Scholar
Buss, A. P. R. (1984). Temperament: Early developing personality traits. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Chambers, J. A., Power, K. G., & Durham, R. C. (2004). The relationship between trait vulnerability and anxiety and depressive diagnoses at long-term follow-up of generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18, 587607.Google Scholar
Chung, E. K., McCollum, K. F., Elo, I. T., Lee, H. J., & Culhane, J. F. (2004). Maternal depressive symptoms and infant health practices among low-income women. Pediatrics, 113, e523e529.Google Scholar
Coplan, R. J., O'Neil, K., & Arbeau, K. A. (2005). Maternal anxiety during and after pregnancy and infant temperament at three months of age. Journal of Prenatal and Perinatal Psychology and Health, 19, 199215.Google Scholar
Cornelius, M. D., Ryan, C. M., Day, N. L., Goldschmidt, L., & Willford, J. A. (2001). Prenatal tobacco effects on neuropsychological outcomes among preadolescents. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 22, 217225.Google Scholar
Dascalu, M., Compton, W. M., Horton, J. C., & Cottler, L. B. (2003). Validity of DIS-IV in diagnosing depression and other psychiatric disorders among substance users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 63, 37.Google Scholar
Davis, E., Snidman, N., Wadhwa, P., Glynn, L., Schetter, C., & Sandman, C. (2004). Prenatal maternal anxiety and depression predict negative behavioral reactivity in infancy. Infancy, 6, 319331.Google Scholar
Day, N. L., & Robles, N. (1989). Methodological issues in the measurement of substance use. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 562, 813.Google Scholar
Dennis, C. L., & Kingston, D. (2008). A systematic review of telephone support for women during pregnancy and the early postpartum period. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 37, 301314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Weerth, C., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2005). Physiological stress reactivity in human pregnancy—A review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 29, 295312.Google Scholar
Dretzke, J., Frew, E., Davenport, C., Barlow, J., Stewart-Brown, S., Sandercock, J., et al. (2005). The effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of parent training/education programmes for the treatment of conduct disorder, including oppositional defiant disorder, in children. Health Technology Assessment, 9, iii, ix–x, 1233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eme, R. F. (2007). Sex differences in child-onset, life-course-persistent conduct disorder: A review of biological influences. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 607627.Google Scholar
Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Thorpe, K. (1996). Changes in depression during and following pregnancy: ALSPAC Study Team Study of Pregnancy and Children. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 10, 279293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fergusson, D. M., Woodward, L. J., & Horwood, L. J. (2000). Risk factors and life processes associated with the onset of suicidal behaviour during adolescence and early adulthood. Psychological Medicine, 30, 2339.Google Scholar
Fumagalli, F., Molteni, R., Racagni, G., & Riva, M. A. (2007). Stress during development: Impact on neuroplasticity and relevance to psychopathology. Progress in Neurobiology, 81, 197217.Google Scholar
Gjerdingen, D. K., & Yawn, B. P. (2007). Postpartum depression screening: Importance, methods, barriers, and recommendations for practice. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, 20, 280288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordon, T. E. J., Cardone, I. A., Kim, J. J., Gordon, S. M., & Silver, R. K. (2006). Universal perinatal depression screening in an academic medical center. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 107, 342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grace, S. L., Evindar, A., & Stewart, D. E. (2003). The effect of postpartum depression on child cognitive development and behavior: A review and critical analysis of the literature. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 6, 263274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hay, D. F., Pawlby, S., Waters, C. S., Perra, O., & Sharp, D. (2010). Mothers' antenatal depression and their children's antisocial outcomes. Child Development, 81, 149165.Google Scholar
Hay, D. F., Pawlby, S., Waters, C. S., & Sharp, D. (2008). Antepartum and postpartum exposure to maternal depression: Different effects on different adolescent outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 10791088.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heron, J., O'Connor, T. G., Evans, J., Golding, J., & Glover, V. (2004). The course of anxiety and depression through pregnancy and the postpartum in a community sample. Journal of Affective Disorders, 80, 6573.Google Scholar
Hobel, C. J., Hyvarinen, M. A., Okada, D. M., & Oh, W. (1973). Prenatal and intrapartum high-risk screening: I. Prediction of the high-rish neonate. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 117, 19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmes, S. E., Slaughter, J. R., & Kashani, J. (2001). Risk factors in childhood that lead to the development of conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder. Child Psychiatry and Human Development Child, 31, 183193.Google Scholar
Horton, J. C., Compton, W. M., & Cottler, L. B. (1998). Assessing psychiatric disorders among drug users: Reliability of the revised DIS-IV. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health.Google Scholar
Huizink, A. C., de Medina, P. G., Mulder, E. J., Visser, G. H., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2002). Psychological measures of prenatal stress as predictors of infant temperament. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 10781085.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jareethum, R., Titapant, V., Chantra, T., Sommai, V., Chuenwattana, P., & Jirawan, C. (2008). Satisfaction of healthy pregnant women receiving short message service via mobile phone for prenatal support: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand, 91, 458463.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593602.Google Scholar
Klein, D. N., Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R., & Olino, T. M. (2005). Psychopathology in the adolescent and young adult offspring of a community sample of mothers and fathers with major depression. Psychological Medicine, 35, 353365.Google Scholar
Kruijshaar, M. E., Barendregt, J., Vos, T., de Graaf, R., Spijker, J., & Andrews, G. (2005). Lifetime prevalence estimates of major depression: An indirect estimation method and a quantification of recall bias. European Journal of Epidemiology, 20, 103111.Google Scholar
Kuo, W. H., Wilson, T. E., Holman, S., Fuentes-Afflick, E., O'Sullivan, M. J., & Minkoff, H. (2004). Depressive symptoms in the immediate postpartum period among Hispanic women in three U.S. cities. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 6, 145153.Google Scholar
Kurtz Landy, C., Sword, W., & Ciliska, D. (2008). Urban women's socioeconomic status, health service needs and utilization in the four weeks after postpartum hospital discharge: Findings of a Canadian cross-sectional survey. BMC Health Services Research, 8, 203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lederman, R. P. (1995). Treatment strategies for anxiety, stress, and developmental conflict during reproduction. Behavioral Medicine, 21, 113122.Google Scholar
Lee, A. M., Lam, S. K., Sze Mun Lau, S. M., Chong, C. S., Chui, H. W., & Fong, D. Y. (2007). Prevalence, course, and risk factors for antenatal anxiety and depression. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 110, 11021112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leech, S. L., Larkby, C. A., Day, R., & Day, N. L. (2006). Predictors and correlates of high levels of depression and anxiety symptoms among children at age 10. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 223230.Google Scholar
Leigh, B., & Milgrom, J. (2008). Risk factors for antenatal depression, postnatal depression and parenting stress. BMC Psychiatry, 8, 24.Google Scholar
Littman, B., & Parmelee, A. H. Jr. (1978). Medical correlates of infant development. Pediatrics, 61, 470474.Google Scholar
Lo, Y. T., Mendell, N. R., & Rubin, D. B. (2001). Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika, 88, 767778.Google Scholar
Loeber, R., Burke, J., & Pardini, D. A. (2009). Perspectives on oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and psychopathic features. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 133142.Google Scholar
Luoma, I., Tamminen, T., Kaukonen, P., Laippala, P., Puura, K., Salmelin, R., et al. (2001). Longitudinal study of maternal depressive symptoms and child well-being. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 13671374.Google Scholar
McCartney, K., Owen, M. T., Booth, C. L., Clarke-Stewart, A., & Vandell, D. L. (2004). Testing a maternal attachment model of behavior problems in early childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 765778.Google Scholar
McMahon, C. A., Barnett, B., Kowalenko, N. M., & Tennant, C. C. (2006). Maternal attachment state of mind moderates the impact of postnatal depression on infant attachment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 660669.Google Scholar
Mora, P. A., Bennett, I. M., Elo, I. T., Mathew, L., Coyne, J. C., & Culhane, J. F. (2009). Distinct trajectories of perinatal depressive symptomatology: Evidence from growth mixture modeling. American Journal of Epidemiology, 169, 2432.Google Scholar
Murali, V., & Oyebode, F. (2004). Poverty, social inequality and mental health. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 10, 216224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, L., Arteche, A., Fearon, P., Halligan, S., Goodyer, I., & Cooper, P. (2011). Maternal postnatal depression and the development of depression in offspring up to 16 years of age. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 460470.Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2007). Mplus user's guide (5th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Najman, J. M., Andersen, M. J., Bor, W., O'Callaghan, M. J., & Williams, G. M. (2000). Postnatal depression-myth and reality: Maternal depression before and after the birth of a child. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 35, 1927.Google Scholar
O'Connor, T. G., Heron, J., & Glover, V. (2002). Antenatal anxiety predicts child behavioral/emotional problems independently of postnatal depression. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 14701477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Connor, T. G., Heron, J., Golding, J., Beveridge, M., & Glover, V. (2002). Maternal antenatal anxiety and children's behavioural/emotional problems at 4 years: Report from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 502508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Connor, T. G., Heron, J., Golding, J., & Glover, V. (2003). Maternal antenatal anxiety and behavioural/emotional problems in children: A test of a programming hypothesis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 10251036.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orr, S. T., Blazer, D. G., & James, S. A. (2006). Racial disparities in elevated prenatal depressive symptoms among black and white women in eastern north Carolina. Annals of Epidemiology, 16, 463468.Google Scholar
Orvaschel, H., Puig-Antich, J., Chambers, W., Tabrizi, M. A., & Johnson, R. (1982). Retrospective assessment of prepubertal major depression with the Kiddie-SADS-e. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 21, 392397.Google Scholar
Papousek, M., & von Hofacker, N. (1998). Persistent crying in early infancy: A non-trivial condition of risk for the developing mother–infant relationship. Child: Care, Health and Development, 24, 395424.Google Scholar
Pastor, D. L. (1981). The quality of mother–infant attachment and its relationship to toddlers' initial sociability with peers. Developmental Psychology, 17, 326335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pawlby, S., Hay, D. F., Sharp, D., Waters, C. S., & O'Keane, V. (2009). Antenatal depression predicts depression in adolescent offspring: Prospective longitudinal community-based study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 113, 236243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pawlby, S., Sharp, D., Hay, D., & O'Keane, V. (2008). Postnatal depression and child outcome at 11 years: The importance of accurate diagnosis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 107, 241245.Google Scholar
Pemberton, C. K., Neiderhiser, J. M., Leve, L. D., Natsuaki, M. N., Shaw, D. S., Reiss, D., et al. (2010). Influence of parental depressive symptoms on adopted toddler behaviors: An emerging developmental cascade of genetic and environmental effects. Devlopment and Psychopathology, 22, 803818.Google Scholar
Perren, S., von Wyl, A., Burgin, D., Simoni, H., & von Klitzing, K. (2005). Depressive symptoms and psychosocial stress across the transition to parenthood: Associations with parental psychopathology and child difficulty. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 26, 173183.Google Scholar
Pritchard, C. W. (1994). Depression and smoking in pregnancy in Scotland. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 48, 377382.Google Scholar
Radloff, L. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385401.Google Scholar
Ree, M. J. (2008). Distinguishing cognitive and somatic dimensions of state and trait anxiety: Development and validation of the State–Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA). Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36, 313332.Google Scholar
Reynolds, C., & Richmond, B. (1978). What I think and feel: A revised measure of children's manifest anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 271280.Google Scholar
Robins, L. N., Cottler, L. B., Bucholz, K. K., Compton, W. M., North, C. S., & Rourke, K. M. (2000). Diagnostic Interview Schedule for the DSM-IV (DIS-IV). St. Louis, MO: Washington University, School of Medicine.Google Scholar
Robles, N., & Day, N. L. (1990). Recall of alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 51, 403407.Google Scholar
Romans, S. E., Walton, V. A., Herbison, G. P., & Mullen, P. E. (1992). Social networks and psychiatric morbidity in New Zealand women. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 26, 485492.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarkar, P., Bergman, K., Fisk, N. M., O'Connor, T. G., & Glover, V. (2007). Amniotic fluid testosterone: Relationship with cortisol and gestational age. Clinical Endocrinology, 67, 743747.Google Scholar
Sarkar, P., Bergman, K., O'Connor, T. G., & Glover, V. (2008). Maternal antenatal anxiety and amniotic fluid cortisol and testosterone: Possible implications for foetal programming. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 20, 489496.Google Scholar
Schindler, A., Thomasius, R., Sack, P. M., Gemeinhardt, B., & Kustner, U. (2007). Insecure family bases and adolescent drug abuse: A new approach to family patterns of attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 9, 111126.Google Scholar
Smith, M. V., Rosenheck, R. A., Cavaleri, M. A., Howell, H. B., Poschman, K., & Yonkers, K. A. (2004). Screening for and detection of depression, panic disorder, and PTSD in public-sector obstetric clinics. Psychiatric Services, 55, 407414.Google Scholar
Speilberger, C. D. (1979). Preliminary manual for the State–Trait Personality Inventory (STPI). Tampa, FL: University of South Florida.Google Scholar
Speilberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R., Lushene, R., Vagg, P., & Jacobs, G. (1983). Manual for the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory: STAI. San Diego, CA: Mindgarden.Google Scholar
SPSS. (2006). Statistical Package for the Social Sciences for Windows, version 15 [Computer software]. Chicago: SPSS Inc.Google Scholar
Stewart, A. L., Dean, M. L., Gregorich, S. E., Brawarsky, P., & Haas, J. S. (2007). Race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status and the health of pregnant women. Journal of Health Psychology, 12, 285300.Google Scholar
Stuart, S., Couser, G., Schilder, K., O'Hara, M. W., & Gorman, L. (1998). Postpartum anxiety and depression: Onset and comorbidity in a community sample. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186, 420424.Google Scholar
Surkan, P. J., Peterson, K. E., Hughes, M. D., & Gottlieb, B. R. (2006). The role of social networks and support in postpartum women's depression: A multiethnic urban sample. Maternal Child Health Journal, 10, 375383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sutter-Dallay, A. L., Giaconne-Marcesche, V., Glatigny-Dallay, E., & Verdoux, H. (2004). Women with anxiety disorders during pregnancy are at increased risk of intense postnatal depressive symptoms: A prospective survey of the MATQUID cohort. European Psychiatry, 19, 459463.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sutter-Dallay, A. L., Murray, L., Dequae-Merchadou, L., Glatigny-Dallay, E., Bourgeois, M. L., & Verdoux, H. (2010). A prospective longitudinal study of the impact of early postnatal vs. chronic maternal depressive symptoms on child development. European Psychiatry, 26, 484489.Google Scholar
Thomas, J. L., Jones, G. N., Scarinci, I. C., Mehan, D. J., & Brantley, P. J. (2001). The utility of the CES-D as a depression screening measure among low-income women attending primary care clinics: The Center for Epidemiologic Studies—Depression. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 31, 2540.Google Scholar
Turner, P. J. (1991). Relations between attachment, gender, and behavior with peers in preschool. Child Development, 62, 14751488.Google Scholar
US Bureau of the Census. (1984). Money, income, and poverty status of families and persons in the United States: 1983 (advance data from the March 1984 Current Population Survey). Retrieved from http://www2.census.gov/prod2/popscan/p60-145.pdfGoogle Scholar
Van den Bergh, B. R., & Marcoen, A. (2004). High antenatal maternal anxiety is related to ADHD symptoms, externalizing problems, and anxiety in 8- and 9-year-olds. Child Development, 75, 10851097.Google Scholar
Verbeek, T., Bockting, C. L. H., van Pampus, M. G., Ormel, J., Meijer, J. L., Hartman, C. A., et al. (2011). Postpartum depression predicts offspring mental health problems in adolescence independently of parental lifetime psychopathology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136, 948954.Google Scholar
Ward, A., Ramsay, R., Turnbull, S., Benedettini, M., & Treasure, J. (2000). Attachment patterns in eating disorders: Past in the present. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 28, 370376.Google Scholar
Ward, A., Ramsay, R., Turnbull, S., Steele, M., Steele, H., & Treasure, J. (2001). Attachment in anorexia nervosa: A transgenerational perspective. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74, 497505.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Gammon, G. D., John, K., Merikangas, K. R., Warner, V., Prusoff, B. A., et al. (1987). Children of depressed parents: Increased psychopathology and early onset of major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 847853.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Leckman, J. F., Merikangas, K. R., Gammon, G. D., & Prusoff, B. A. (1984). Depression and anxiety disorders in parents and children: Results from the Yale Family Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 845.Google Scholar
West, M., & George, C. (2002). Attachment and dysthymia: The contributions of preoccupied attachment and agency of self to depression in women. Attachment & Human Development, 4, 278293.Google Scholar
Westen, D., Nakash, O., Thomas, C., & Bradley, R. (2006). Clinical assessment of attachment patterns and personality disorder in adolescents and adults. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 74, 10651085.Google Scholar
White, H. R., Nagin, D., Replogle, E., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2004). Racial differences in trajectories of cigarette use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 76, 219227.Google Scholar
Woolfenden, S. R., Williams, K., & Peat, J. (2001). Family and parenting interventions in children and adolescents with conduct disorder and delinquency aged 1017. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD003015.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2001). World health report 2001. Mental health: New understanding, new hope. Geneva: Author.Google Scholar
Yoo, H. I., Kim, B. N., Shin, M. S., Cho, S. C., & Hong, K. E. (2006). Parental attachment and its impact on the development of psychiatric manifestations in school-aged children. Psychopathology, 39, 165174.Google Scholar
Zax, M., Sameroff, A. J., & Babigian, H. M. (1977). Birth outcomes in the offspring of mentally disordered women. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 47, 218230.Google Scholar