Last updated 09/07/24: Online ordering is currently unavailable due to technical issues. We apologise for any delays responding to customers while we resolve this. For further updates please visit our website: https://www.cambridge.org/news-and-insights/technical-incident
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 July 2024
There is now no doubt that cultural contacts took place between the peoples of Asia and America during the Middle or Late Paleolithic Age. In the course of one particular period, betweeen 20,000 and 40,000 years ago, there came from Asia, in successive waves, the first groups who were to populate the American continent.
What still remains a mystery—the “enigma of the Indian race,” is the origin of a second generation of “homo americanus,” the founder of the high cultures. From the lest millennium B.C. onwards, some Central American tribes evolved with unexpected speed towards a superior level of culture, creating class distinctions, a priest-hood, religious creeds, an artisan class producing artistic works of great value, and a body of knowledge almost scientific in character. This development sprang from a basic culture which was possibly even inferior to that enjoyed by peoples in other parts of the world. This prompts several questions.
(Report on work in progress).
1 For information on the bibliography of the double significance attributed to the term Fu-sang, see: H. Cordier, Bibliotheca Sínica, Paris, 1924, vol. V, pp. 2653-2658.
2 The idea of Fu-sang still lives on, as can be seen from the article by Yung-hua King: "Fu-sang (quizá México) en el libro ‘Shi-zhou-ji,'" in Estudios Orientales, vol. VIII, no. 1, Mexico, 1973, pp. 42-51. The author mentions other Chinese texts, earlier than those cited by De Guignes, and seems to have forgotten the story of the Buddhist expedition. In his work Fu-sang-gwo Kao zheng, Changsha, Commercial Press, 1941, Zu Qian-zhi is sympathetic to the theory identifying it with Mexico, despite the fact that the term Fu-sang has been used to mean Japan in literary texts dating from after the T'ang Dynasty.
3 A. von Humboldt, Vue des Cordillères et des monuments des peuples indi gènes de l'Amérique. Paris 1816. 2 vols. Spanish Translation: Madrid 1878.
4 Compte-rendu de la première session du congrès International des Améri canistes, Nancy, 1875, V.I, p. 141. In the same volume see also: Foucaux M., "Relations qu'ont pu avoir ensemble, au commencement de notre ère, les Bouddhistes d'Asie et les habitants de l'Amérique," (pp. 131-141); and Lucien, Adam: "Du Fou-sang," (pp. 145-164).
5 E. B. Tylor, "On the Game of Patolli in Ancient Mexico and its Probably Asiatic Origin." In: Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. VIII, pp. 116-131, 1878.
6 D. G. Brinton, On various supposed relations between the American and Asian races, Philadelphia, 1900, p. 52.
7 H. Beyer, "A deity common to Teotihuacan and Totomac cultures." In: Proceedings of the XXIII International Congress of Americanists. New York, 1930, pp. 82-84.
8 H. Galdwin, Man out of Asia, New York, 1947. The works of Elliot Smith, founder of the heliolitic school, should be seen in the same tradition (notably: The influence of ancient Egyptian civilization in the East and America, Manchester, 1916); the same goes for a recent work by D. Singhal: India and world civilization, Michigan, 1969.
9 Imbelloni J., La segunda esfinge indiana, antiguos y nuevos aspectos del problema de los americanos. Buenos Aires, Hachette, 1956, p. 328.
10 Among the most important are: "The Origin of Ancient Civilizations and Toynbee's Theories," In: Diogenes, no. 13, 1956; "Representation of the Asiatic tiger in the art of Chavin culture; a proof of early contacts between China and Peru." In: Proceedings of the XXXIII International Congress of Americanists, San José, Costa Rica, 1959, vol. 1, pp. 117-119; " Chinese influences in Mexico and Central America. The Tajín style of Mexico and the marble vases from Honduras." In Proceedings of the XXXIII I.C.A., San José, vol. 1, pp. 195-205; "Un nouveau parallèle entre l'Amérique du Sud Précolombienne et l'ancienne Asie Sudorientale." In: Miscellanea Paul Rivet, Mexico 1954, vol. 2, pp. 219-226; "Traces of Indian and South Asiatic-Buddhistic influences in Mesoamerica." In: Proceedings of the XXXI I.C.A., Mexico, 1964, vol. 1, pp. 47-54. In collaboration with G. F. Ekholm: "Significant parallels in the symbolic art of southern Asia and middle America. In: Selected papers of the XXIX I.C.A., vol. 1, Chicago, 1951, pp. 299-309.
11 R. Heine-Geldern: "Cultural connections between Asia and pre-Columbian America," In: Anthropos, vol. 45, n. 1-3, 1950, p. 351; and: "The Problem of Transpacific influences in Mesoamerica," in: Handbook of Middle American Indians, ed. R. Wanchope. Austin, 1966, vol. IV, p. 293.
12 J. Naudou: "A propos d'un éventuel emprunt de l'art maya aux arts de l'Inde extérieure." In: Akten XXXIV Int. Cong. Am., Wien, 1962, p. 346. See further: G. E. Ekholm: "Is American Culture Asiatic?," in: Natural History, LIX, n. 8, 1950, pp. 344-351; and "Transpacific Contacts," in: J. D. Jennings, E. Norbeck (ed.): Prehistoric Man in the New World, Chicago Univ. Press, 1964, pp. 485-510; Covarrubias M.: The Eagle, the jaguar and the serpent. Indian art of the Americas- New York, 1954.
13 B. Meggers, C. Evans, E. Estrada; Early formative period of coastal Ecuador. The Valdivia and Machalilla Phases. Washington, Smithsonian Institution 1965, pp. 160 & 168.
14 E. Estrada, B. Meggers: "A complex of traits of probable transpacific origin on the coast of Ecuador," in: American Anthropologist, vol. 63, no. 5, 1961, pp. 913-939.
15 In: Selected papers of the XXIX Int. Cong. Am. Chicago, vol. 1, p. 307.
16 P. Kirchhoff: "The Adaptation of Foreign Religious Influences in Pre-Spanish Mexico." In: Diogenes, no. 47. See also, by the same author: "The diffusion of a great religious system from India to Mexico. In: Actas y Memorias del XXXV Congresso Int. de. Am., Mexico, 1964, vol. 1; pp. 73-100.
17 J. Imbelloni: op. cit., p. 334.
18 A. M. Garibay: "Semejanza de algunos conceptos filosóficos de las culturas Indù y Náhuatl." In: Cuadernos Americanos, Mexico, vol. 103, no. 2, pp. 120- 144, 1959.
19 Dennis Wing-son Lou: Rain Worship among the Ancient Chinese and the Nahua-Maya Indians. Taiwan, Chinese Academy, 1957.
20 S. Marti: "Manos simbólicas en Asia y América." In: Cuadernos Américanos, vol. 159, no. 2, 1970, pp. 146-166.
21 A. Caso: "Answer to Paul Kirchhoff," in Diogenes, no. 47, 1964; Martinez del Rio: Los orígenes americanos, 3rd ed., Mexico 1952; D. Fraser: "Theoretical issues in the transpacific diffusion controversy." In: Social Research, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 452-477, 1965.
22 L. Pericot: "El origen del hombre americano y el primer poblamiente de América." In: M. Gomez-Tabanera: Las raices de América, Madrid 1968, pp. 45-63; W. Krickberg (ed): Las antiguas culturas americanas, Mexico 1964; S. Canals Frau: "El antiguo Oriente y el nacimiento de las civilizaciones americanas." In: Imago Mundi, Buenos Aires 1954, no. 3, pp. 23-27; O. F. Menghim: "Relaciones transpacíficas de América precolombina." In: Runa, Buenos Aires 1967, vol. 10, pp. 83-97; P. Bosch-Gimpera: "Paralelos transpa cíficos de la altas culturas americanas y su cronología." In: Anales de antro pología, Mexico 1970, pp. 43-89; T. Marzewskj: "Remarques sur l'état des recherches concernant les contacts entre les peuples de l'Asie et l'Amérique précolombienne." In: Folia Orientalia, II, Krakow, 1961, pp. 177-204.
23 Carroll L. Riley and others: Man across the Sea. Problems of Pre-Columbian Contacts. Austin, Univ. of Texas Press, 1971, p. 552.
24 Glyn Daniel has given a very favourable critical review of Man across the Sea, in: Antiquity, vol. 46, no. 184, Dec. 1972, pp. 288-292. While being one of the moderates, Daniel considers the demonstration of links between the Jomon and Valdivia civilizations as "one of the most surprising discoveries of the last decade."
25 The proceedings of this conference have not been published, but a Selective bibliography of the influences of Asia and Oceania in Pre-Columbian America, containing over 500 titles, has been issued. (Buenos Aires, 1972, p. 31).
