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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 26 March 2015
The early Chinese spindle-wheel was originally invented in conjunction with silk-technology and was linked to silk production, as pictured in some Han stone reliefs. It is concluded that the spindle-wheel is a Chinese Invention which may be dated to the early years of the Warring States period. In the course of time people realized the advantages of the spindle-wheel and it was adopted for plant fiber production.
The spindle-wheel may have been brought to Europe at the same time as silk-technology was introduced, most probably in the second half of the first millenium A.D. Only when the continuously working spinning-wheel with flyer was invented in fifteenth century Europe did a better and more efficient spinning device become available.
1. Kuhn, Dieter, Die Webstühle des Tzu-jen i-chih aus der Yüan-Zeit, Sinologica Coloniensia 5 (Wiesbaden, 1977), p. XXVIGoogle Scholar.
2. This Statement is based on my own experience last summer in China.
3. Lopez, R. S., “China Silk in Europe In the Yüan Period,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 72.2 (1952):72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
4. Examples are: Ying-shih, Yü, Trade and Expansion in Han China: A Study in the Structure of Sinobarbarian Economical Relations (Berkeley, 1967Google Scholar; Yoshinobu, Shiba, Commerce and Society in Sung China, trans. Elvin, Mark, Michigan Abstracts of Chinese and Japanese Works on Chinese History 2 (Ann Arbor, 1970)Google Scholar; Dietrich, Craig, “Cotton Culture and Manufacture in Early Ch'ing China,” in Economic Organizatlion in Chinese Society, ed. Willmott, W.E. (Stanford, 1972), pp. 109–135Google Scholar; Mark Elvin, “The High-level Equilibrium Trap: The Causes of the Decline of Invention in the Traditional Chinese Textile Industries,” in op. cit., pp. 137-172; and Kang, Chao, The Development of Cotton Textile Production in China, Harvard East Asian Monographs 74 (Cambridge, Mass., 1977)Google Scholar.
5. Geijer, Agnes, A History of Textile Art (London, Leeds, 1979)Google Scholar. This book cannot seriously be regarded as “A History of Textile Art.” Scandinavian textiles and textile technology receive far more attention than Chinese or Persian. The general reader necessarily gets the impression that Scandinavia piayed an important role in the development of textile technology and in the history of textile arts.
6. Sylwan, Vivi, “Silk from the Yin Dynasty,” BMFEA 9 (1937): 119–126Google Scholar; “Wu-hsing Ch'ien-shan-yang i-chi ti-i-erh-tz'u fa-chüeh pao-kao” (Report on the first and second excavations of the Ch'ien-shan-yang remains at Wu-hsing, Chekiang province), KKHP 1960.2:73–92Google Scholar; Wang Jo-yü 
, Ts'ung T'ai-hsi-ts'un ch'u-t'u ti Shang-tai cnih-wu ho fang-chih kung-chü t'an tang-shih ti fang-chih” 
(Notes on the Shang Dynasty textile finds in the light of the Shang dynasty woven materials and tools unearthed from T'ai-hsi-ts'un in Kao-ch'en county, Hopei province), WW 1979.6.49–53Google ScholarPubMed; Kuhn, Dieter, “Silk Technology in the Sung Period (960-1278 A.D.).” Accepted for publication in TP (1981)Google Scholar.
7. It is impossible to list more than a few references here: Le Coq, Albert von, Chotscho (Berlin, 1913)Google Scholar; Stein, Aurel and Andrews, F.H., “Ancient Chinese Figured Silks Excavated by Sir Aurel Stein,” Burlington Magazine 37 (1920):2.10, 71–77, 147–152, 215, 265, 326–327Google Scholar; Yetts, W. Percival, “Discoveries of the Kozlov Expedition,” Burlington Magazine 48 (1926):168–185Google Scholar; Stein, Aurel, Innermost Asia: Detailed Report of Explorations in Central Asia, Kansu and Eastern Traan (Oxford, 1928)Google Scholar, especially vol. 1; Trever, Camilla, Excavations in Northern Mongolia, 1924-1925 (Leningrad, 1932)Google Scholar; Ashton, Leigh, “Chinese Textiles: Kozlov Discoveries at Noinola and Other Pieces,” Journal of the Royal Society of Asia 84 (1936):305–319Google Scholar; Sylwan, Vivi, Woollen Textiles of the Lou-Ian People, the Sino-Swedish Expedition, Pub. 15, VII:Archaeology 2 (Stockholm, 1941)Google Scholar: Sylwan, Vivi, Investigations of Silk from Edson-gol and Lop-nor, the Sino-Swedish Expedition, Pub. 32, VII: Archaeology 6 (Stockholm, 1949)Google Scholar; Lowry, John, “Han Textiles Excavated by Sir Aurel Stein and Others,” Oriental Art, n.s. 6.4. (1960):67–71Google Scholar; Lowry, John, “Early Chinese Silks,” Ciba Review 1963.2:2–30Google Scholar; Riboud, Krishna, “A Closer View of Early Chinese Silks,” in Studies in Textile History, ed. Gervers, Veronika (Toronto, 1977), pp. 252–280Google Scholar.
8. The most remarkable works are: Rondot, Natalis, “Notice sur le métier à tisser Ie jong et le ho,” Journal Asiatique nlle. sér, 4.9 (1847):332–350Google Scholar; Julien, Stanislas, Résumé des principaux traités chinois sur la culture des mûriers et l'éducades vers à soie (Paris, 1837)Google Scholar; Hedde, Isadore, Description méthodique de l'industrie serigene de la Chine (Saint-Etienne, 1848)Google Scholar; de Bavier, Ernest, La sériciculture au Japon (Lyon, Milan, 1874)Google Scholar; The Inspector General of Customs, ed., Silk (Shanghai, 1881)Google ScholarPubMed; Franke, Otto, Keng Tschi T'u: Ackerbau und Seidengewinnung in China, Abhandlungen des Hamburgischen Kolonialinstitutes 11 (Hamburg, 1913)Google Scholar; Hommel, Rudolph P., China at Work (New York, 1937)Google Scholar; Montell, Głsta “Spinning Tools and Spinning Methods in Asia,” in Woollen Textiles of the Lou-Tan People, ed. Sylwan, Vivi (Stockholm, 1941), pp. 109–125Google Scholar; Minhsiung, Shih, Ch'inq-tai ssu-chih kung-yeh ti fa-chan (Taipei, 1968)Google Scholar, trans. Zen, Sun E-tu, The Silk Industry in Ch'ing China, Michigan Abstracts 5 (Ann Arbor, 1976)Google Scholar.
9. Eizō, Ohta
, “Kodai Chūgoku no shokki gijutsu” 
(The technology of looms in ancient China), Shi-rin 
34.1 (1951):63–77Google Scholar; Sasaki Shinzaburō 
, Ragi shiko
(My opinion about gauze technology) Kawashima Orimono Kenkyūsho Hōkoku 
4 (Kyōto, 1960); “Nishijin orimono shōsetsu” 
(Precise explanations of Nishijin weavings), Nishijin Museum, ed., Nishijin-bi to dento 
(Kyōto, 1969), pp. 372–381Google ScholarPubMed; Shinzaburō, Sasaki, Shōsōin no ra 
(Patterned re-weave fabrics in the Shōsōin) (Tokyo, 1971)Google Scholar; Taketoshi, Satō
, Chügoku kodai kenshokko butsushi kenkyū 
(Investigations into the history of ancient Chinese silk fabrics) (Tokyo, 1977)Google Scholar; Junrō, Nunome
, Yōsan no kigen to kodaihen 
(The origin of sericulture) (Tokyo, 1979)Google Scholar.
10. Kiyoshi, Yabuuchi
, Tenkō kaibutsu no kenkyū 
(Research on the T'ien-kung k'ai-wu) (Tokyo, 1953)Google Scholar (translated into Chinese by Hsiang-yū, Su
as T'ien-kung k'ai-wu chih yen-chiu 
[Taipei, 1956])Google Scholar; Zen, Sun E-tu and Shiou-chuan, Sun, T'ien-kung k'ai-wu: Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century by Sung Ying-hsing (University Park, London, 1966)Google Scholar; Kiyoshi, Yabuuchi, trans., Tenkō kaibutsu 
(Tokyo, 1969)Google Scholar; Kuang-yen, Chung
, ed., T'ien-kung k'ai-wu 
(annotated edition, Kuangtung, 1976)Google Scholar.
11. Charleston, Robert J., “Han Damasks,” Oriental Art 1948.1:63–81Google Scholar; Burnham, Harold B., “Technical Aspects of the Warp-faced Compound Tabbies of the Han Dynasty,” Bulletin de Liaison (Lyons) 22 (1956): 25–45Google Scholar; Burnham, Harold B., “Une armure gaze complexe chinoise,” Bulletin de Liaison 9 (1959):29–35Google Scholar; Burnham, Harold B., Chinese Velvets: A Technical Study, Royal Ontario Museum, Occasional Paper 2 (Toronto, 1959)Google Scholar; Lubo-Lesnichenko, E., Drevnie kitaiskie šelkoviye tkani i vyšivki V do n. ë. - III v n.ë. v sobranii gosundarstviennogo Ermitaža (Ancient silk textiles and embroideries from the 5th century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D. in the collections of the State Hermitage museum) (Leningrad, 1961)Google Scholar; Riboud, Krishna, “Les soieries Han: Aspects nouveaux dans l'étude des soieries d'Asie centrale,” Arts Asiatiques 17 (1967–1968): 93–116CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Vial, Gabriel, “Les soieries Han. II - Analyse technique sur un specimen de Noin Oula,” Arts Asiatiques 17 (1967–1968): 117–141CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Riboud, Krishna and Vial, Gabriel, Tissus de Touen-houang conservés au Musée Guimet et à la Bibliothèque Nationale, Mission Paul Pelliot, documents archéologiques 13 (Paris, 1970)Google Scholar. In addition to the works mentioned above, various publications appear in the Bulletin de Liaison, Lyons.
12. Hsio-Yen Shih has cited 56 titles of Chinese publications concerning the history of textiles in her article “Textile Finds in the People's Republic of China,” in Studies in Textile History, ed. Gervers, Veronika (Toronto, 1977), pp. 305–321Google Scholar. In addition there are a few titles concerning textile technology: Shih Hung-ta 
“Shih-lun Sung Yüan Ming san-tai mein-fang-chih sheng-ch'an kung-chü fa-chan-shih kuo-ch'eng” 
(Discussion of the development of implements and machinery for the cotton manufacture in Sung, Yüan, and Ming times), Li-shih yen-chiu 1957.3:19–42Google Scholar; Ch'ung-chou, Li
“Shih-chieh shang tsui-tsao ti shui-li fang-chi-ch'e ‘shul-chuan ta-fang-ch‘e’” 
(The world's oldest water-powered spinning machinery-the great water-driven spinning machine), WW 1959.12:29–30Google Scholar; Po-yin, Sung
and Chung-i, Li
, “Ts'ung Han hua-hsiang-shih t'an-so Han-tai chih-chi lou-tsao” 
(Investigation of the construction of looms in the Han period based on stone reliefs), WW 1962.3:24–30, 44Google Scholar; Shih, Tuan
“Chiang-su T'ung-shan Hung-lou Tung-Han-mu ch'u-t'u fang-shih hua-hsiang-shih” 
(Eastern Han stone reliefs of looms from Tung-shan, Hung-lou in Kiangsu province), WW 1962.3:31–32Google Scholar; Chao-lin, Sung
“Yün-nan Hsi-shuang Pan-na T'ai-tsu ti fang-chih chi-shu; chien t'an ku?tai fang-chih ti chi-ko wen-t'i” 
(The weaving techniques of the T'ai nationality of Hsi-shuang, Pan-na, Yünnan province and some problems of textile weaving in antiquity), WW 1965.4:6–13Google Scholar; “T'u-lu-fan-hsien A-ssu-t'a-na Ha-la-ho-cho ku-mu ch'un fa-chüeh chien-pao” 
(Excavations of ancient tombs at Astana and Karakhoja in Turfan, 1963-1965), WW 1972.1:8–29Google Scholar; “Wu-ch'an-chieh-chi wen-hua ta-ko-ming chung ti k'ao-ku hsin-fa-hsien” 
(New archaeological finds during the Proletarian Cultural Revolution), KK 1972.1:29–42Google Scholar; Ch'ung-chou, Li
, “Wo-kuo ku-tai ti chiao-t'a fang-ch'e” 
(Our ancient treadle-operated spinning wheel), WW 1977.12:73–75Google Scholar; yen-chiu-so, Tzu-jan k'o-hsüeh-shih
, ed., Chung-kuo ku-tai k'o-chi ch'eng-chiu 
(China's historical achievements in science and technology) (Peking, 1978), pp. 362–391, 632–661Google Scholar; yen-chiu-yüan, Shanghai-shih fang-chih k'o-hsüeh
ed., Fang-chih shih-hua 
Discussion on the history of textile technology) (Shanghai, 1978: 2nd ed., Shanghai, 1979)Google Scholar. Of the works published in Taiwan, I will mention only the articles by Ching-heng, Tsou
, published in Ta-Tu tsa-chih 
45.5 (1972):235–254Google Scholar; 49.2 (1974): 55-77; and Tan-chiung, T'an
, Chung-hua min-chien kung-i t'u-shuo 
(Illustrations and explanations of Chinese popular crafts) (Taipei, 1956), pp. 1–33Google Scholar.
13. Kuhn, Dieter, Die Webstühle des Tzu-jen i-chih aus der Yüan-Zeit (Wiesbaden, 1977), pp. 81–85Google Scholar.
14. Kuhn, Dieter, “Silk Technology in the Sung Period (960 - 1278 A.D.).” Accepted for publication in TP (1981)Google Scholar.
15. Karlgren, B., The Book of Odes (Stockholm, 1950), PP. 69, 88, 131, 237Google Scholar; Li-chi 
(1878 edition), 5:81Google Scholar; Lieh-tzu 
(Shih-te-t'ang
1914), 5:22Google Scholar; Mo-jo, Kuoet al., eds., Kuan-tzu chi-chiao 
(Shanghai, 1956), vol. 2, pp 1071, 1076, 1176, 1187, 1251Google Scholar; Maverick, L., Economic Dialogues in Ancient China: Selections from the Kuan-tzu (Carbondale, Ill., 1954), pp. 65, 123–124, 158, 163, 187–188Google Scholar; Swann, N., Food and Money in Ancient China (Princeton, 1950), pp. 124, 129, 339Google Scholar; Wilbur, C. M., “Slavery in China during the Former Han Dynasty,” Field Museum of Natural History Publications, Anthropological Series 34 (1943): 365Google Scholar; Needham, J.Science and Civilization in China (Cambridge, 1965), vol. 4.2:26–27Google Scholar. See T' also, T'u-shu chi-ch'eng, 798, K'ao-kung-tien, ch. 218.
16. Patterson, R., “Spinning and Weaving,” in A History of Technology, ed, Singer, Charles (Oxford, 1956), p. 203Google Scholar.
17. On the spinning process, see also: Fannin, Allen, Handspinning: Art & Technique (New York, 1970)Google Scholar.
18. Patterson, op. cit., p. 202.
19. “Das Mittelalterliche Hausbuch” (Frankfurt, 1887; Leipzig, 1912; Munich, 1957)Google Scholar.
20. For further discussion, see Usher, A.P., A History of Mechanical Inventions (New York, 1954) pp. 270–274Google Scholar; Patterson, op.dt., p. 205; English, W., The Textile Industry (London, 1969), pp. 4–7Google Scholar; Leadbeater, Eliza, Spinning and Spinning Wheels, Shire Album 43 (Aylesbury, 1979), pp. 6–9Google Scholar.
21. Feldhaus, F. M., Die Technik: Ein Lexikon der Vorzeit, der geschiehtlichen Zeit und der Naturvölker (Leipzig, Berlin, 1914), p. 1059Google Scholar; P. A. Usher, op. cit., p. 268. White, Lynn, Medieval Technology and Social Change (Oxford, 1962), p. 119Google Scholar; Lach, Donald F., Asia in the Making of Europe (Chicago, Toronto, 1965), vol. 1.1, p. 81Google Scholar; W. English, op. cit., p.2.
22. Patterson, op. cit., p. 208; Leadbeater, op. cit., p. 4.
23. Forbes, R. J., Man the Maker, A History of Technology and Engineering (New York, 1950), p. 115Google Scholar.
24. Feldhaus, F. M., Die Technik der Antike und des Mittelalters (Potsdam, Leipzig, 1931) pp. 45–81Google Scholar; Mumford, Lewis, Technics and Civilization (London, 1934), p. 144Google Scholar; Parish, W. F., “Origin of Textiles and the Spinning Wheel,” Rayon Textile Monthly 16 (1936):570Google Scholar; Born, W., “Das indische Spinnhandrad und seine Wanderung nach Ost und West,” Ciba Rundschau 3 (1939): 1097–1098Google Scholar; Leroi-Gourhan, André, L'Homme et la matière (Paris, 1943), p. 260Google Scholar; Schwarz, A., “Reel and Spinning Wheel,” Ciba Review 59 (1947): 2134–2140Google Scholar; Forbes, R. J., Studies in Ancient Technology (Leiden, 1956), vol. 4, p. 156Google Scholar. The hand spindle was used in the Vedic period in India, see Rau, Wilhelm, Weben und Flechten im vedischen Indien, Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Abhandlungen der Geistes-und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse 11 (Mainz, 1970), pp. 16–17Google Scholar.
25. Born, op. cit., p. 1097; Forbes, , Studies in Ancient Technology, p. 156Google Scholar.
26. Fang-chih shih-hua, p. 63. In my own research on the geographical distribution of spindle whorls in Neolithic China, I arrived at the same conclusion.
27. I have been informed by my Chinese colleague Mr. Chao Ch'eng-tse that the Chinese archaeologists and textile historians will publish in 1980 a book which will demonstrate the existence of the draw-loom in the Chou period.
28. Lieh-tzu (Shih-te-t'ang, 1914), 5:22Google Scholar. It would far exceed the scope of this article to go into the question of whether Lieh-tzu was actually a philosopher or just an invention by Chuang-tzu. I follow Forke, Alfred, Geschichte der alten chinesischen Philosophie (Hamburg, 1927), vol. 1, pp. 284–290Google Scholar, in believing that major parts of the work at least are Chou originals. The anecdote itself is attributed to the school of Lieh-tzu (before Han times).
29. I follow the commentary by Chang Ch'an of the Chin dynasty.
30. Fang-chih shih-hua, p. 62.
31. Fang-chih shih-hua, p. 62. This of course is only the case when weaving the 15 sheng fabric (warp threads:weft threads 28:24/cm2).
32. Fang-chih shih-hua, p. 64.
33. A Schwarz, op. cit., pp. 2138, 2165. Linder, Alfred, Spirmen und Weben einst und jetzt (Frankfurt, Luzern, 1967), pp. 56–60Google Scholar.
34. Fannin, op. cit., pp. 21-22.
35. Fang-chih shih-hua, pp. 65-67.
36. Chuan-hsin, Hsiung
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(Silk fabrics from the Warring States period newly discovered at Ch'ang-sha), WW 1975.2:49–52Google Scholar.
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(Han tomb no. 1 at Ma-wang-tui, Ch'ang-sha) (Peking, 1973), vol. 1, pp. 46–47Google Scholar.
38. Patterson, op. cit., fig. 183 [Ypres Book of Trades, c.1310]; Needham, op. cit., p. 106.
39. Patterson, op. cit., p. 209.
40. Cho-yün, Hsü, Ancient China in Transition (Stanford, 1977), pp. 119–122Google Scholar.
41. See footnotes 45, 46, 57, 77, 78.
42. Patterson, op, cit., pp. 208-209.
43. Shen, Hsü
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44. Shuo-wen chieh-tzu, 5 shang:3.
45. The stone relief depicted In fig. 1 was found 1930 in T'eng hsien in Shantung. It is pictured in Hsi-hua, Fu
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46. The stone relief depicted in fig. 2 was found 1952 in T'eng hsien, Lung-yang-tien, Shantung. It is now in the Li-shih po-wu-kuan, Peking. It is pictured in Lubo-Lesnichenko, E., Drevnie kitaiskie šelkoviye tkani i vyšivki (Leningrad, 1961), pl. III, no. 4Google Scholar; Sung Po-yin, op, cit., p. 23, fig. 2; Finsterbusch, Käte, Verzeichnis und Motivindex der Han-Darstellungen (Wiesbaden, 1971) vol. 2, Taf. 240, no. 5Google Scholar; Satō Taketoshi, op. cit., Pl.2.
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49. Chen, Wang
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50. T'ien-kung k'ai-wu, shang ch., p. 33b.
51. Throwing is not used here in the European sense, i.e., twisting several single threads into one thread in a direction opposite to that in which they themselves are twisted. See Chieh, Wei
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53. Ts'an-sang ts'ui-pien, 5:2b.
54. Shuo-wen chieh-tzu, 5 shang: 6.
55. Nung-shu, 21:16b.
56. T'ien-kung k'ai-wu, shang ch., p. 33b.
57. The stone relief depicted in fig. 3 was found in Chi-ling, Shantung. It is now in the Tokyo School of Engineering and pictured in Sekino, Tadashi, “Sepulchral Remains of the Han Dynasty in the Province of Shantung, China,” Journal of the College of Engineering 8 (1916): 1Google Scholar; Sung Po-yin, op. cit., p. 23, fig, 4; Finsterbusch, op. cit., Taf. 107, no. 370; Satō, op. cit., pl.3.
58. This stone relief was found in 1956, T'ung-shan hsien, Mangsu province. It is pictured in Chiang-su Hsü-chou Han-mu hua-hsiang-shih 
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59. Most probably warp and weft were manufactured in the same way, that is to say, the same quilling wheels were used to produce the warp, and the weft threads. Burnham, Harold B., “La préparation des fils de soie en Chine ancienne,” Bulletin de Liaison 27 (1968):54–58Google Scholar.
60. Shuo-wen chieh-tzu, 13 shang:2.
61. T'ien-kung k'ai-wu, shang ch., p. 31a.
62. T'ien-kung k'ai-wu, shang ch., p. 31a.
63. Shuo-wen chieh-tzu, 13 shang:2.
64. Chen, Tai, Fang-yen su-cheng 
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65. Fang-yen su-cheng, 5:10Google Scholar.
66. Nung-shu, 21:13b–15aGoogle Scholar.
67. Nung-shu, 21:13bGoogle Scholar.
68. T'ien-kung k'ai-wu, shang ch., p. 31b.
69. Ibid.
70. For a discussion of driving belts in China, see Needham, op. cit., pp. 8, 55, 83, 95, 102-105, 107-108, 267. The spindle was driven as demonstrated in Rudolph P. Hommel, op. cit., p. 173, fig. 251. These stone reliefs are the oldest illustrated sources proving the existence of continuous driving belts in China.
71. H. B. Burnham, “La preparation des fils …,” op. cit., p. 56.
72. T'ien-kung k'ai-wu, shang ch., p. 34a; Shen, Yang, Pin-feng kuang-i 
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73. One picture is to be seen on the left side of fig. 2; I have not redrawn the other picture. It is on a stone relief of poor quality from P'ei hsien, Kiangsu, pictured in Sung Po-yin, op. cit., p. 24, fig. 6; Finsterbusch, op. cit., Taf. 148, no. 550a.
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75. See footnote 58.
76. Fig. 4 is from Ssu-hung hsien in Kiangsu. “Ssu-hung hsien Ts'ao-chuang fa-hsien i-p'i Han-hua hsiang-shih” 
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80. See footnote 77.
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