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Translating the Blueprint for Financial Deregulation: The American Bank Lobby’s Unyielding Quest for Legislative Profits, 1968–1982

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 September 2018

JUSTIN DOUGLAS
JUSTIN DOUGLAS*
Affiliation:
Justin Douglas has a PhD in History from the University of Toronto. This article is part of his first research project, which focused on how commercial bank officers undertook a process of world-making, instituting around themselves (through marketing, lobbying, infrastructure development, and technical capacity building) a world in which unsecured consumer debt and credit cards are normalized, naturalized, and indeed necessary for everyday survival. Department of History, Sidney Smith Building, 100 St. George Street, Room 2074, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5S 3G3, 416–978–3363. E-mail: j.douglas@mail.utoronto.ca.
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Abstract

In 1968, facing a tumultuous banking environment, commercial bankers framed bank lobbying as the act of translating the complex U.S. financial and economic systems for legislators and regulators. Inspired by Science and Technology Studies research, this article demonstrates that the translations of the U.S. financial system offered by bank lobbyists were not merely descriptions of the complex banking system. Instead, their translations reflected a process that sought to create networks of congressional and public support and enroll other actors as spokespersons for these translations. The article details how the acceptance for these translations proved to be a long process of reformulations, reconfigurations, and failures. There were three primary lobbying strategies used by large U.S. commercial banks: maintaining close relationships with high-ranking decision makers, making public statements to gain public support for their translations of the economy, and advocating for long and expert studies with heavy bank consultation. The article also highlights the techniques used by bank lobbyists during this period to alter the banking environment: legislation drafting, editorial writing, letter writing, report writing, private consultations, meetings with reporters, and public statements. These lobbying techniques and strategies were instrumental in establishing the Hunt Commission and translating and actualizing the blueprint for financial “deregulation.”

Type
Article
Information
Enterprise & Society , Volume 20 , Issue 2 , June 2019 , pp. 281 - 327
Copyright
Copyright © The Author 2018. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Business History Conference. All rights reserved. 

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References

Bibliography of Works Cited

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Allen, Paul R., and Wilhelm, William J.. “The Impact of the 1980 Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act on Market Value and Risk: Evidence from the Capital Markets.” Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking 20, no. 3 (August 1, 1988): 364–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bogie, William P. “When Is a Lobbyist Not a Lobbyist?” Banking 62, no. 5 (November 1969): 31.Google Scholar
Barrett, Paul, and Rose, Mark H.. “Street Smarts: The Politics of Transportation Statistics in the American City, 1900–1990.” Journal of Urban History 25, no. 3 (March 1, 1999): 405–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callon, Michel. “Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation: Domestication of the Scallops and the Fishermen of St.–Brieuc Bay.” Sociological Review 32 (May 1, 1984): 196–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gärtner, Manfred. “Legislative Profits and the Rate of Change of Money Wages: A Graphical Exposition.” Public Choice 34, no. 3/4 (1979): 365–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gorinson, Stanley M. “Depository Institution Regulatory Reform in the 1980s: The Issue of Geographic Restrictions Industry Studies.” Antitrust Bulletin 28 (1983): 227–254.Google Scholar
Grant, James. “Too Big to Fail? Walter Wriston and Citibank.” Harvard Business Review (July–August 1996). https://hbr.org/1996/07/too-big-to-fail-walter-wriston-and-citibank.Google Scholar
Hammond, Thomas H., and Knott, Jack H.. “The Deregulatory Snowball: Explaining Deregulation in the Financial Industry.” Journal of Politics 50, no. 1 (February 1, 1988): 3–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphrey, David B., and Pulley, Lawrence B.. “Banks’ Responses to Deregulation: Profits, Technology, and Efficiency.” Journal of Money, Credit and Banking 29, no. 1 (1997): 73–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyman, Louis. “Ending Discrimination, Legitimating Debt: The Political Economy of Race, Gender, and Credit Access in the 1960s and 1970s.” Enterprise and Society 12, no. 1 (March 1, 2011): 200–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, Donald P. “The Framework of Commercial Bank Regulation: An Appraisal.” National Banking Review (1964): 343–357.Google Scholar
Kipping, Matthias, and Westerhuis, Gerarda. “The Managerialization of Banking: From Blueprint to Reality.” Management & Organizational History 9, no. 4 (October 2, 2014): 374–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacKenzie, Donald. “An Equation and Its Worlds.” Social Studies of Science 33, no. 6 (December 1, 2003): 831–868.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, Richard A. “The Chicago School of Antitrust Analysis.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 127, no. 4 (April 1, 1979): 925–948.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, Roland. “The Hunt Commission Report: A Search for Politically Feasible Solutions to the Problems of Financial Structure.” Journal of Finance 27, no. 4 (September 1972): 765–777.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, Mark H. “Reframing American Highway Politics, 1956–1995.” Journal of Planning History 2, no. 3 (2003): 212–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, Mark H. “United States Bank Rescue Politics, 2008—2009: A Business Historian’s View.” Enterprise & Society 10, no. 4 (December 1, 2009): 612–650.Google Scholar
Smith, Edward F. “New ABA Target: Complex Regulations.” Banking 69, no. 12 (December 1977): 7.Google Scholar
Vanatta, Sean H. “Citibank, Credit Cards, and the Local Politics of National Consumer Finance, 1968–1991.” Business History Review 90, no. 1 (2016): 57–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waterhouse, B. C. “Mobilizing for the Market: Organized Business, Wage-Price Controls, and the Politics of Inflation, 1971–1974.” Journal of American History 100, no. 2 (September 1, 2013): 454–478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atlanta ConstitutionGoogle Scholar
Christian Science MonitorGoogle Scholar
First National City Bank Monthly Economic NewsletterGoogle Scholar
Institutional InvestorGoogle Scholar
Los Angeles TimesGoogle Scholar
Michigan ReviewGoogle Scholar
National JournalGoogle Scholar
New York TimesGoogle Scholar
News-JournalGoogle Scholar
Orlando SentinelGoogle Scholar
Savings and Loan NewsGoogle Scholar
Sun (Baltimore)Google Scholar
Tampa TribuneGoogle Scholar
Wall Street JournalGoogle Scholar
Washington PostGoogle Scholar
Gerald, R. Ford Presidential Library, Ann Arbor, MI.Google Scholar
Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford, CA.Google Scholar
Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum, Austin, TX (LBJ Archives).Google Scholar
National Archives, College Park, MD.Google Scholar
Richard Nixon Presidential Library, Yorba Linda, CA.Google Scholar
Tufts University Digital Collections & Archives, Medford, MA.Google Scholar
Boughton, James M. Silent Revolution: The International Monetary Fund, 1979–1989. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 2001.Google Scholar
Burns, Arthur, and Ferrell, Robert H. Inside the Nixon Administration: The Secret Diary of Arthur Burns, 1969–1974. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010.Google Scholar
Callon, Michel. “What Does It Mean to Say That Economics Is Performative?” In Do Economists Make Markets? On the Performativity of Economics, edited by MacKenzie, Donald, Muniesa, Fabian, and Siu, Lucia, 311–358. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Conti-Brown, Peter. Power and Independence of the Federal Reserve. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehrlichman, John. Witness to Power: The Nixon Years. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982.Google Scholar
Eisner, Marc Allen. Antitrust and the Triumph of Economics: Institutions, Expertise, and Policy Change. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991.Google Scholar
Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission. The Final Report of the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission: Hearing before the Committee on Financial Services, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, First Session, February 16, 2011. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2011.Google Scholar
Geisst, Charles R. Undue Influence: How the Wall Street Elite Put the Financial System at Risk. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2005.Google Scholar
Hammond, Bray. Banks and Politics in America, from the Revolution to the Civil War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957.Google Scholar
Hecht, Gabrielle. Being Nuclear: Africans and the Global Uranium Trade. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Holler, M. J., and Owen, Guillermo. Power Indices and Coalition Formation. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publisher, 2001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holler, Manfred J., and Nurmi, Hannu. Power, Voting, and Voting Power: 30 Years After. Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyman, Louis. Debtor Nation: The History of America in Red Ink. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Jacobs, Meg. Panic at the Pump: The Energy Crisis and the Transformation of American Politics in the 1970s. New York: Hill and Wang: 2017.Google Scholar
Johnson, Simon, and Kwak, James. 13 Bankers: The Wall Street Takeover and the next Financial Meltdown. New York: Vintage Books, 2011.Google Scholar
Jones, Daniel Stedman. Masters of the Universe: Hayek, Friedman, and the Birth of Neoliberal Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Malabre, Alfred L. Lost Prophets: An Insider’s History of the Modern Economist. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Mason, David L. From Buildings and Loans to Bail-Outs: A History of the American Savings and Loan Industry, 1831–1995. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paulson, Henry, King Steel, Robert, and Nason, David G. The Department of the Treasury Blueprint for a Modernized Financial Regulatory Structure. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Treasury, 2008.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Timothy. Carbon Democracy: Political Power in the Age of Oil. New York: Verso Books, 2011.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Timothy. Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-Politics, Modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Mol, Annemarie. The Body Multiple: Ontology in Medical Practice. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, George S. The Banker’s Life. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1987.Google Scholar
Phillips-Fein, Kim. Fear City: New York’s Fiscal Crisis and the Rise of Austerity Politics. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2018.Google Scholar
Phillips-Fein, Kim. Invisible Hands: The Making of the Conservative Movement from the New Deal to Reagan. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2009.Google Scholar
The Report of the President’s Commission on Financial Structure & Regulation. Washington, DC: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971.Google Scholar
Rockefeller, David. Memoirs. New York: Random House, 2002.Google Scholar
Rose, Mark H., Seely, Bruce Edsall, and Barrett, Paul F., The Best Transportation System in the World: Railroads, Trucks, Airlines, and American Public Policy in the Twentieth Century. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Seely, Bruce Edsall. Building the American Highway System: Engineers as Policy Makers, Technology and Urban Growth. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Strunk, Norman, Case, Frederick E., and United States League of Savings Associations. Where Deregulation Went Wrong: A Look at the Causes behind Savings and Loan Failures in the 1980s. Chicago: United States League of Savings Institutions, 1988.Google Scholar
Vietor, Richard H. K. Contrived Competition: Regulation and Deregulation in America. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, Nancy Beck. Wright Patman: Populism, Liberalism, & the American Dream. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Zelizer, Julian E. The Fierce Urgency of Now: Lyndon Johnson, Congress, and the Battle for the Great Society. New York: Penguin Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Zweig, Phillip L. Wriston: Walter Wriston, Citibank and the Rise and Fall of American Financial Supremacy. New York: Crown Publishers, 1995.Google Scholar
Abrams, Burton Alan. “An Economic Theory of Lobbying: A Case Study of the United States Banking Industry.” Ph.D., Ohio State University, 1974.Google Scholar
Abrams, Burton Alan. “Legislative Profits and the Economic Theory of Representative Voting: An Empirical Investigation.” Public Choice 31 (October 1, 1977): 111–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, Paul R., and Wilhelm, William J.. “The Impact of the 1980 Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act on Market Value and Risk: Evidence from the Capital Markets.” Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking 20, no. 3 (August 1, 1988): 364–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bogie, William P. “When Is a Lobbyist Not a Lobbyist?” Banking 62, no. 5 (November 1969): 31.Google Scholar
Barrett, Paul, and Rose, Mark H.. “Street Smarts: The Politics of Transportation Statistics in the American City, 1900–1990.” Journal of Urban History 25, no. 3 (March 1, 1999): 405–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callon, Michel. “Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation: Domestication of the Scallops and the Fishermen of St.–Brieuc Bay.” Sociological Review 32 (May 1, 1984): 196–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gärtner, Manfred. “Legislative Profits and the Rate of Change of Money Wages: A Graphical Exposition.” Public Choice 34, no. 3/4 (1979): 365–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gorinson, Stanley M. “Depository Institution Regulatory Reform in the 1980s: The Issue of Geographic Restrictions Industry Studies.” Antitrust Bulletin 28 (1983): 227–254.Google Scholar
Grant, James. “Too Big to Fail? Walter Wriston and Citibank.” Harvard Business Review (July–August 1996). https://hbr.org/1996/07/too-big-to-fail-walter-wriston-and-citibank.Google Scholar
Hammond, Thomas H., and Knott, Jack H.. “The Deregulatory Snowball: Explaining Deregulation in the Financial Industry.” Journal of Politics 50, no. 1 (February 1, 1988): 3–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphrey, David B., and Pulley, Lawrence B.. “Banks’ Responses to Deregulation: Profits, Technology, and Efficiency.” Journal of Money, Credit and Banking 29, no. 1 (1997): 73–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyman, Louis. “Ending Discrimination, Legitimating Debt: The Political Economy of Race, Gender, and Credit Access in the 1960s and 1970s.” Enterprise and Society 12, no. 1 (March 1, 2011): 200–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, Donald P. “The Framework of Commercial Bank Regulation: An Appraisal.” National Banking Review (1964): 343–357.Google Scholar
Kipping, Matthias, and Westerhuis, Gerarda. “The Managerialization of Banking: From Blueprint to Reality.” Management & Organizational History 9, no. 4 (October 2, 2014): 374–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacKenzie, Donald. “An Equation and Its Worlds.” Social Studies of Science 33, no. 6 (December 1, 2003): 831–868.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, Richard A. “The Chicago School of Antitrust Analysis.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 127, no. 4 (April 1, 1979): 925–948.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, Roland. “The Hunt Commission Report: A Search for Politically Feasible Solutions to the Problems of Financial Structure.” Journal of Finance 27, no. 4 (September 1972): 765–777.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, Mark H. “Reframing American Highway Politics, 1956–1995.” Journal of Planning History 2, no. 3 (2003): 212–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, Mark H. “United States Bank Rescue Politics, 2008—2009: A Business Historian’s View.” Enterprise & Society 10, no. 4 (December 1, 2009): 612–650.Google Scholar
Smith, Edward F. “New ABA Target: Complex Regulations.” Banking 69, no. 12 (December 1977): 7.Google Scholar
Vanatta, Sean H. “Citibank, Credit Cards, and the Local Politics of National Consumer Finance, 1968–1991.” Business History Review 90, no. 1 (2016): 57–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waterhouse, B. C. “Mobilizing for the Market: Organized Business, Wage-Price Controls, and the Politics of Inflation, 1971–1974.” Journal of American History 100, no. 2 (September 1, 2013): 454–478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atlanta ConstitutionGoogle Scholar
Christian Science MonitorGoogle Scholar
First National City Bank Monthly Economic NewsletterGoogle Scholar
Institutional InvestorGoogle Scholar
Los Angeles TimesGoogle Scholar
Michigan ReviewGoogle Scholar
National JournalGoogle Scholar
New York TimesGoogle Scholar
News-JournalGoogle Scholar
Orlando SentinelGoogle Scholar
Savings and Loan NewsGoogle Scholar
Sun (Baltimore)Google Scholar
Tampa TribuneGoogle Scholar
Wall Street JournalGoogle Scholar
Washington PostGoogle Scholar
Gerald, R. Ford Presidential Library, Ann Arbor, MI.Google Scholar
Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford, CA.Google Scholar
Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum, Austin, TX (LBJ Archives).Google Scholar
National Archives, College Park, MD.Google Scholar
Richard Nixon Presidential Library, Yorba Linda, CA.Google Scholar
Tufts University Digital Collections & Archives, Medford, MA.Google Scholar