¹ On the international level, see the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, UN Doc. A/55/383, p. 53 (2000). Art. 7 of this instrument reflects the idea of a residence permit to victims of trafficking. The further Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, UN Doc. A/55/383, p. 62 (2000) does not contain any provision concerning residence rights.Google Scholar

² See, e.g., the Council Framework Decision on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings of 19 July 2002, 2002 O.J (L 203) 1. Tom Obokata, EU Council Framework Decision on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings: A Critical Appraisal, 40 Common Market Law Review 917 (2003); Ryszard Piotrowicz, European Initiatives in the Protection of Victims of Trafficking who Give Evidence Against Their Traffickers, Int'l J. of Refugee L. 263 (2002).Google Scholar

³ Overview by Tom Obokata, EU Action Against Trafficking of Human Beings: Past, Present and the Future, in Guild & Minderhoud, supra note •.Google Scholar

⁴ Art. 7 of the Framework Decision of the EC Council on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings of 19 July 2002, 2002 O.J. (L 203) 1.Google Scholar

⁵ Title IV, Art. 61-68 EC, especially, Art. 63 No. 3 EC.Google Scholar

⁶ Prominently laid out by the Conclusions of the Presidency of the European Council of Tampere, 15/16 October 1999, para. 10 ff.Google Scholar

⁷ The more recent measures adopted were: “Qualification Directive” – Council Directive 2004/83/EC of 29 April 2004 “on minimum standards for the qualification and status of third country nationals or stateless persons as refugees or as persons who otherwise need international protection and the content of the protection granted”, OJ 2004 L 304/12, and the “Family Reunification Directive” – Council Directive 2003/86/EC of 22 September 2003 “on the right to family reunification”, 2003 O.J. (L 251) 12. Summary of the measures adopted up to then at Katja Ziegler, Integration und Ausgrenzung im Lichte der Migrationspolitik der Europäischen Union – die Festung Europa?, in Integration und Recht 127, 140 (Sahlfeld et al. eds., 2003).Google Scholar

⁸ The European Council of Tampere (15/16 October 1999) stressed in its Conclusions (para. 3) the need for the “Union to develop common policies on asylum and immigration, while taking into account the need for a consistent control of external borders to stop illegal immigration and to combat those who organise it and commit related international crimes.”Google Scholar

⁹ Conclusions of the Presidency of the European Council of Tampere, 15/16 October 1999, para. 23.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Council Directive 2002/90/EC of 28 November 2002, 2002 O.J. (L 328) 17.Google Scholar

¹¹ Supra note 9.Google Scholar

¹² Commission Proposal (COM) (2002) 71 final, 2002 O.J. (C 126) E/393.Google Scholar

¹³ Of a duration of six months, renewable see Art. 8 (4) Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April 2004, 2004 O.J. (L 261) 19.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Explanatory Memorandum, COM (2002) 71 final, p. 7 (section 2.2.2.).Google Scholar

¹⁵ Criticism regarding this restriction by Piotrowicz, supra note 2, at 267.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Art. 3 (2)Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April 2004, 2004 O.J. (L 261) 19. Also, the access to the labor market has been put more at the discretion of Member States (Art. 11).Google Scholar

¹⁷ See Art. 10 of the Proposal, COM (2002) 71 final, p. 22 on the one hand and Art. 8 Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April 2004, 2004 O.J. (L 261) 19.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Piotrowicz, supra note 2.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Friedrich-Christian Schroeder, Irrwege aktionistischer Gesetzgebung – das 26. StÄG (Menschenhandel), 50 Juristenzeitung 231, 232 (1995).Google Scholar

²⁰ Statute of 30 July 2004, Federal Law Gazette (Bundesgesetzblatt, BGBl.) 2004 I, p. 1950 ff.Google Scholar

²¹ This article will refer to the numbers of the law in force. §§ 92a and 92b of the (old) Foreigners’ Act (Ausländergesetz, AuslG) relate to 96 and 97 AufenthG (new).Google Scholar

²² Statute of 11 February 2005, BGBl. I 2005, p. 239, in force 19 February 2005.Google Scholar

²³ §§ 180b, 181 (old), §§ 232, 233, 233a (new) StGB.Google Scholar

²⁴ See supra note 1, at 2.Google Scholar

²⁵ See Explanatory Memorandum in Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache (BT Drs.) 15/3045 p. 6. Trafficking for the purpose of organ transplantation would remain in a separate statute: the Transplantation Act, BGBl I 1997, p. 2631.Google Scholar

²⁶ Johannes Hofmann, Menschenhandel. Beziehungen zur Organisierten Kriminalität und Versuche der strafrechtlichen Bekämpfung 93 (2002).Google Scholar

²⁷ Id., at 101.Google Scholar

²⁸ Cf. Federal Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof, BGH), 53 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 1732 (2000). (women from the Ukraine coming on tourist visa and working as prostitutes); Hofmann, supra note 26, at 102.Google Scholar

²⁹ BGH, judgment of 17 March 2004, 2 StR 474/03, 9 Neue Zeitschrift für Strafrecht – Rechtsprechungs-Report 233 (2004), available at www.bundesgerichtshof.de). Hofmann, supra note, 26, at 107, 241; Dreixler, Der Mensch als Ware. Erscheinungsformen modernen Menschenhandels unter strafrechtlicher Sicht 208 (1998).Google Scholar

³⁰ Landeskriminalamt Nordrhein-Westfalen (LKA NRW), Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen 2002, p. 24, available at http://www.lka.nrw.de/lagebilder/lagebild_menschenhandel_2002.pdf.Google Scholar

³¹ Hofmann, supra note 26, at 104.Google Scholar

³² As was the case, in BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004). See also the Explanatory Memorandum to the Proposal for a Council Directive “on the short-term residence permit issued to victims of action to facilitate illegal immigration or trafficking in human beings who cooperate with the competent authorities”, COM (2002) 71 final, p. 2 (section 1.1.).Google Scholar

³³ See, e.g.,the facts of BGH, 52 JZ 153 (1997).Google Scholar

³⁴ According to § 3 (1) AufenthG.Google Scholar

³⁵ See the parliamentary debate on the amendment of the trafficking provisions, Deutscher Bundestag, Plenarprotokoll 15/109 of 7 May 2004, pp. 9946 ff.; also the Question of Members of the German Parliament on trafficking of human beings in Germany to the Federal Government, Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache 15/1938 of 5 November 2003, p. 2, and Answer of the Federal Government, Drucksache 15/2065 of 21 November 2003.Google Scholar

³⁶ Cf. Klaus Sieveking, Staatliche Reaktionen auf Illegalität in Deutschland – europa-, ausländer- und arbeitsrechtliche Aspekte, in, Migration und Illegalität 91 (Eberhard Eichenhofer, ed., 1999).Google Scholar

³⁷ The court's judgment was followed by a parliamentary questioning of the Government, in which the government was accused of by-passing immigration law, see Deutscher Bundestag (BT), Plenarprotokoll 15/99 of 24 March 2004, pp. 8833 ff.; the current debate in the opposition is about instigating an inquiry commission, see Peter Carstens, Andere Instrumente erforderlich, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 11 November 2004, at 3.Google Scholar

³⁸ So called Volmer-Erlass, named after the then Secretary of State, who was a member of the Green Party in the coalition government.Google Scholar

³⁹ LG Köln, judgment of 9 February 2004, B. 109-32/02; see also Guido Heinen, Schleuserkriminalität: Justiz kritisiert Auswärtiges Amt, Die Welt, 11 February 2004; Barbara Oertel, Schleusung ohne staatliche Billigung, taz, 14 February 2004, at 7; FAZ, 26 February 2004, at 4.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ In conjunction with §§ 26, 27 StGB which may be read into all criminal offences.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Mentioned in § 95 AufenthG.Google Scholar

⁴² § 95 AufenthG. Less severe breaches of immigration law are only offences under administrative law (e.g. negligent stay without permit), §§ 98 AufenthG, § 10 EU Free Movement Act (Freizügigkeitsgesetz/EU 2004). These are outside the ambit of this article. See Katharina Aurnhammer, Spezielles Ausländerstrafrecht 91 (1996). The obligation on carriers not to transport persons into Germany who lack the necessary passport or visa can be enforced by fines (§ 63 AufenthG).Google Scholar

⁴³ § 95 AufenthG.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ §§ 53-55 AufenthG.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Survey by Volker Westphal & Edgar Stoppa, Straftaten bei unerlaubter Einreise und unerlaubtem Aufenthalt von Ausländern, 52 NJW 2137 (1999); and Hans-Peter Welte, Illegaler Aufenthalt in Deutschland, 22 Zeitschrift für Ausländerrecht 54 (2002); Horst Steiner, Schleusungskriminalität aus der Sicht des Revisionsgerichts, in Illegale Migration und Schleusungskriminalität 141, 151 (Eric Minthe, ed., 2002).Google Scholar

⁴⁶ § 96 (1) no. 1 and 3 AufenthG. See Court of Appeal (Oberlandesgericht, OLG) Frankfurt, 1 Ws 106/00, judgment of 18 August 2000, 6 NStZ-RR 57 (2001); also also Court of Appeal (Kammergericht (KG)) Berlin, 1 Ss 198/01, judgment of 28 September 2001.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ § 96 (1) no. 1 and 3 AufenthG. Further acts come under the broadly defined concept of illegal entry and residence in § 95 AufenthG (breach of a prohibition to take up employment). Other forms of illegal stay may result from engaging in prohibited political activity (No. 4), active resistance to fingerprinting and photographing (No. 5), or membership in a secret association of foreigners (No. 7), See von Pollern, Das spezielle Strafrecht für Ausländer, Asylbewerber und EU-Ausländer im Ausländergesetz, Asylverfahrensgesetz und EWG-Aufenthaltsgesetz, 16 ZAR 175-76 (1996).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ It is a systematic feature of German criminal law to differentiate “normal”, aggravated and less severe offences of the same basic offence by adding additional “elements” to it when formulating the statute. This is to be distinguished from sentencing, when aggravating and mitigating “circumstances” will be assessed.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ § 95 (2) AufenthG.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Id.Google Scholar

⁵¹ OLG Düsseldorf, 53 NJW 1280 (2000); Günter Renner, Ausländerrecht. Kommentar § 92 AuslG para. 18 (7th ed. 1999). Cases discussed by Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 67; Hans-Ingo von Pollern, supra note 47, at 177; Dreixler, supra note 29 at 224.Google Scholar

⁵² BGH, 53 NJW 1732, para. 19 (2000).Google Scholar

⁵³ § 95 (2) No. 2 AufenthG.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ See § 84 Asylum Procedure Act (Asylverfahrensgesetz, AsylVfG).Google Scholar

⁵⁵ § 96 AufenthG.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ §§ 84 – 86 AsylVfG.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ See Renner, supra note 51, at § 84 AsylVfG, para. 3; Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 73 with further references.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ BGH, 52 NJW 333 (1997); Kay Hailbronner, Ausländerrecht. Kommentar, Heidelberg, up-to date 31st supplement, August 2002, A 1, § 92 AuslG, para. 55.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ See Recommendation of the Judicial Committee (Rechtsausschuss), BT Drs. 9/875, p. 26; but also German Federal Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht (BVerfG)), 2 BvR 397/02 of 6 March 2003, para. 34 ff.; Victor Pfaff, Prüfungsumfang der Strafgerichte bei unerlaubtem Aufenthalt, ZAR 148 (2003). For previous attempts to construe a justification for reasons of necessity, see Andrik Abramenko, Unerlaubter Aufenthalt und rechtfertigender Notstand – Zur Anwendung von § 34 StGB auf ausländerrechtliche Strafvorschriften, 21 Neue Zeitschrift für Strafrecht 71 (2001).Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Because of the right to refuse to give self-incriminatory evidence (§ 55 Criminal Procedure Code, Strafprozessordnung (StPO)), with regard to the smuggled person. Rechtsausschuss, BT Drs. 9/875, p. 26; Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 41, 34; von Pollern, supra note 47, at 180.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 73.Google Scholar

⁶² Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 41.Google Scholar

⁶³ § 95 (3) AufenthG.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Bavarian Court of Justice (Bayerisches Oberstes Landesgericht (BayObLG)), 16 NStZ 287 (1996).Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Listed in § 95 AufenthG, supra text to note 45.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Hailbronner, supra note 58, at A 1, § 92 AuslG, para. 61.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Implemented by § 13 (3) AsylVfG.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ § 95 (5) AufenthG.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ BGH, 19 NStZ 408, 409 (1999); regional court (Amtsgericht (AG)) Landsberg, 2 Cs 103 Js 112199/00j, judgment of 21 August 2001, 2002 Informationsbrief Ausländerrecht (InfAuslR) 198 f.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 163.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Art. 16a (2) GG, §§ 26a, 31 (1) 2, 34a (1) AsylVfG, § 60 AufenthG. Held to be constitutional by the German Bundesverfassungsgericht, 94 BVerfGE 49 ff. and 115 ff. See however, European Court of Human Rights, App. No. 43844/98, T.I. v. UK; “Procedures Directive”, Amended Proposal for a Council Directive on minimum standards on procedures in Member States for granting and withdrawing refugee status, COM (2002) 326 final, Explanatory Memorandum to Art. 28 on the point of a non-rebuttable presumption of safety.Google Scholar

⁷² Explicitly Bavarian Administrative Court of Appeal (Bayerischer Verwaltungsgerichtshof (BayVGH)), 44 Bayerische Verwaltungsblätter (BayVBl.) 119 (1998), quoting the Federal Administrative Court (Bundesverwaltungsgericht, BVerwG), 89 BVerwGE 231, 234; Westphal & Stoppa, supra note 45, at 2138.Google Scholar

⁷³ See OLG Dresden, 19 Strafverteidiger 259 (1999).Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Köln, OLG, NStZ-RR 24, 25 (2004).Google Scholar

⁷⁵ See also OLG Dresden, StV 259 (1999); Renner, supra note 51, at § 13 AsylVfG, Rn. 20. Previously, mere transit was not considered as ending the flight of a refugee, see 78 BVerwGE 332 and 79 BVerwGE 347.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ In this respect BGH, 19 StV 382 (1999).Google Scholar

⁷⁷ OLG Köln, 9 NStZ-RR 24, 25 (2004); no criminal offence held by OLG Düsseldorf, 18 StV 139-40 (1998).Google Scholar

⁷⁸ To the negative: Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 159; Westphal & Stoppa, supra note 45, at 2144; however, LG Offenburg, order of 7 July 1994 – Qs 85/94 granted the waiver.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ § 95 AufenthG in conjunction with §§ 26 or 27 StGB. See, for example, BayObLG, 55 NJW 1663, 1664 (2002); KG Berlin, judgment of 4 July 2001, 1Ss 263/00; OLG Frankfurt, 13 NStZ 393 (1993); OLG Zweibrücken, 46 Monatsschrift des deutschen Rechts 894 (1992); Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 152.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ BGH, NJW 1435 (1989) – Philippine women (recruitment of women to be married in Germany). Aurnhammer, supra note 42 at 75; BayObLG, 55 NJW 1663, 1664 (2002).Google Scholar

⁸¹ LG Braunschweig, 36 KLs 806 Js 41519/98, judgment of 26 March 2002 (money transfer to Iraq for immigrant who had no permission to enter).Google Scholar

⁸² BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004); OLG Düsseldorf, 53 NJW 1280 (2000); LG Darmstadt, 2 NStZ-RR 30 (1998); OLG Frankfurt, 13 NStZ 394 (1993).Google Scholar

⁸³ BayObLG, 5 NStZ-RR 226 (2000).Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Renner, supra note 51, at § 92a AuslG, para. 5; von Pollern, supra note 47, at 175.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ § 95 (1) no. 2, 3 AufenthG.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ BGH, 43 NJW 2207, 2208 (1990). See also OVG Lüneburg, 16 Neue Zeitschrift für Verwaltungsrecht 622 (1997) – smuggling by letting rooms with the purpose of enabling prostitution.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ BGH 43 NJW 2207, 2208 (1990); OLG Düsseldorf, StV 312 (2002); BayObLG, 55 NJW 1663, 1664 (2002); 20 StV 366 (2000); KG Berlin, 1 Ss 263/00 (195/00), order of 4 July 2001.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Köln, OLG, 8 NStZ-RR 184, 185 (2003). See also criticism of the previous jurisprudence by Peter König, Kann einem omnimodo facturus Beihilfe geleistet werden?, 55 NJW 1623, 1624 (2002).Google Scholar

⁸⁹ BGH, 42 NJW 1435 (1989) referring to BT Drs. 9/800, p. 11 and 9/847 p. 12; see also examples mentioned by Bernd Walter, Schlepper, Schleuser, Menschenhändler. Der grenzpolizeilichen Alltag an den deutschen Ostgrenzen, Kriminalistik 471, 474 (1998).Google Scholar

⁹⁰ See also Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 75; Claudius Geisler, Bekämpfung der Schleuserkriminalität, 34 Zeitschrift für Rechtspolitik 171 (2001).Google Scholar

⁹¹ Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 181.Google Scholar

⁹² OLG Oldenburg, 57 NJW 1748 (2004); see also VGH Mannheim, Verwaltungsblätter Baden-Württemberg 404 (1995); critical annotation by Stefan Zeitler, “Passkontrolle” durch den Bordellwirt?, VBlBW 44 (1996).Google Scholar

⁹³ See, e.g., OLG Köln, 8 NStZ-RR 184 (2003).Google Scholar

⁹⁴ “Einschleusen von Ausländern”, §§ 96, 97 AufenthG. E.g. BGH, NStZ 45 (2004); OLG Köln, NStZ-RR 184 (2003); Renner, supra note 51, at § 92a AuslG, para. 4. Hofmann, supra note 26, at 34.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Geisler, supra note 90, at 172.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ With a mandatory reduction of the punishment for “mere” assistance according to § 27 (2) StGB. This reduction does not apply to the smuggling offences which are independently codified forms of assistance to illegal entry, BGH, 24 NStZ 45 (2004).Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Under § 95 AufenthG.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Geisler, supra note 90, at 172 for the case of smuggling of an infant under the age of criminal responsibility; see, however, also BayObLG, 8 NStZ-RR 275 (2003); BayObLG, 20 StV 366 (2000); Westphal & Stoppa, supra note 45, at 2143.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ BGH, 42 NJW 1435, 1436 (1989); BGH, 34 Sammlung in Strafsachen 299, 303 = 40 NJW 1987 (1987); BayObLG, 42 NJW 1437 (1989) (formula of the judgment reprinted only).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ Statute of 29 October 1997, BGBl. I, p. 2584.Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ BGH, 24 NStZ 45 (2004).Google Scholar

¹⁰² Also critical comment by Edgar Stoppa, in Huber, Handbuch des Ausländerrechts, § 92a AuslG 100 B, para. 6.Google Scholar

¹⁰³ § 96 (2) AufenthG.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ BGH, 18 NStZ 305 (1998).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ The regular sanction of the German Criminal Code is either a fine or imprisonment (§§ 38, 40 StGB). For certain categories of offences, additional sanctions apply, such as revocation of driver's license (§ 44 StGB) or extended forfeit/confiscation (§ 73d StGB).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ § 97 AufenthG.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ German criminal law is built on the distinction between offences and crimes (§ 12 (1) StGB), the latter entailing a minimum of one year imprisonment and automatic liability for attempt (§ 23 (1) StGB).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ § 30 (2) StGB.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁹ §§ 3, 5 – 7 StGB.Google Scholar

¹¹⁰ BayObLG, 5 NStZ-RR 433, 345 (2000); OLG Köln, 20 NStZ 39, 40 (2000).Google Scholar

¹¹¹ § 9 StGB. For example, when the offence is committed by several persons jointly in a way that each person's individual action is attributable to the others, § 25 (2) StGB.Google Scholar

¹¹² Punishable under § 30 (2) StGB.Google Scholar

¹¹³ 39 BGHSt 88, 89; Jörn Lorenz, Die “Schreibtisch-Schleusung” – eine Einführung in das Ausländerstrafrecht, 22 NStZ 640, 643 (2002).Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ BT Drs 12/5683, p. 8 (explanatory memorandum to the bill of the Bundesrat).Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ 45 BGHSt 103-108 (NJW 2827 (1999)); BGH, 7 NStZ-RR 23 (2002); also OLG Zweibrücken, 1 Ss 22/95, judgment of 25 March 1995; LG Flensburg, 5 NStZ-RR 124 (2000). In this case the state of destination was not a Schengen state and illegal entry into Germany could not be proven, so § 92a (4) AuslG {§ 96 (4) AufenthG} did not apply, BGH, 7 NStZ-RR 23 (2002).Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ Cf. BGH, 7 NStZ-RR 23 (2002), where the Federal Court of Justice held that where it could not be established that there was assistance to illegal stay in Germany, the “smuggling” out of Germany and into another country did not amount to an offence. Contradictorily, the ending of the judgment was considered to be a contribution to restore the law by ending an illegal residence (para. 3)!Google Scholar

¹¹⁷ See infra note 119. BGH, 21 NStZ 157 (2001); 55 NJW 3642 (2002).Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ 45 BGHSt 103 ff., para. 8.Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ Hailbronner, supra note 58, at A 1, § 92a AuslG, para. 24 ff.Google Scholar

¹²⁰ BGH, 21 NStZ 157 (2001); For the temporal scope see BGH, 55 NJW 3642 (2002).Google Scholar

¹²¹ Under § 95 (2) AufenthG.Google Scholar

¹²² §§ § 96, 97 AufenthG.Google Scholar

¹²³ Marriages of convenience would be subsumed under this variant.Google Scholar

¹²⁴ “Verleitung zur missbräuchlichen Asylantragstellung”, §§ 84, 84a AsylVfG.Google Scholar

¹²⁵ See also Dreixler, supra note 29, at 256.Google Scholar

¹²⁶ See Edwin M. Schur, Crimes Without Victims. Deviant Behaviour and Public Policy 169 (1965); Hans-Jörg Albrecht, Eine kriminologische Einführung zu Menschenschmuggel und Schleuserkriminalität, in Illegale Migration und Schleusungskriminalität 29 48 (Eric Minthe ed., 2002).Google Scholar

¹²⁷ Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 160; Hailbronner, supra note 58, at A 1, § 92a AuslG, para. 33.Google Scholar

¹²⁸ § 96 (1) AufenthG or § 84 AsylVfG, in connection with §§ 26, 27 StGB Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 160; Claus Roxin, in Leipziger Kommentar Vor § 26 StGB, para. 35, (11 ed) assumes that the courts would come to the conclusion that the act is punishable; in the affirmative Hailbronner, supra note 58, at A 1, § 92a AuslG, para. 33.Google Scholar

¹²⁹ In the same vein see Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 161.Google Scholar

¹³⁰ § 96, 97 AufenthG.Google Scholar

¹³¹ Pollern, Von, supra note 47, at 175; Geisler, supra note 90, at 175; Lorenz, supra note 113, at 641; Hailbronner, supra note 58, at A 1, § 92a AuslG, para. 33.Google Scholar

¹³² 90 BVerfGE 145, 146, 173.Google Scholar

¹³³ Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 162; Walter Gropp, Deliktstypen mit Sonderbeteiligung. Untersuchungen zur Lehre der “notwendigen Teilnahme“ 207, 222, 235, 238, 300 (1992).Google Scholar

¹³⁴ Convincingly: Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 162.Google Scholar

¹³⁵ § 234 StGB. Seizure of a person by certain means (force, threat of appreciable harm or trickery) in order to abandon the victim in a helpless situation or force the victim into military service abroad, 39 BGHSt 214; Herbert Tröndle & Thomas Fischer, Strafgesetzbuch, § 234, para. 2 (51th ed. 2003).Google Scholar

¹³⁶ § 235 StGB. Removal or withholding children or minors from their parents or legal guardians, Tröndle & Fischer, supra note 135, at § 235, para. 10.Google Scholar

¹³⁷ § 236 StGB. To leave children under 14 years of age to a third person with the intent to enrich oneself or another in circumstances where the obligations of a parent or guardian to ensure the well-being of the child are neglected. Further, the provision of placement services for the adoption of minors or to the aim to take in a minor is criminal (up to five years or a fine), where there is an economic motive.Google Scholar

¹³⁸ Supplementary to § 236 StGB above. A number of prohibitions result in both administrative and criminal sanctions. For example, placement services can only be rendered by authorized state institutions (children's welfare authorities (Jugendamt, Landesjugendamt) via adoption offices or churches and welfare organizations), with the exception of relatives or where there is an individual case with no economic motive; administrative fines are also given for arranging “baby lifts” for later adoption outside the scope of the German law, while there is a criminal sanction for finding surrogate mothers. Acts on the demand side are not criminalized. Schur, supra note 126, at 174; Dreixler, supra note 29, at 50, 66, and 278.Google Scholar

¹³⁹ Prohibits the gainful trade in organs. Dreixler, supra note 29, at 95.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁰ § 233 StGB (previously § 406, 407 SGB III). Dreixler, supra note 29, at 132, and 254; Frank Kawelovski, Kriminelle Bausanierungen. Eine besonders brutale Art des Wirtschaftsgebarens, 2001 Kriminalistik 663 describes some practices in this context.Google Scholar

¹⁴¹ Cf. however the above (text around note 22) mentioned amendment.Google Scholar

¹⁴² Supra note 1.Google Scholar

¹⁴³ See also Schroeder, supra note 19, at 236 who refers to abduction to be placed in brothels abroad as the “archetypical” case of trafficking in women.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁴ This has widely been criticized, Schroeder, supra note 19; Hofmann, supra note 26, at 381.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁵ “Menschenhandel”.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁶ In 2002, 21 out of 203 trafficked women in the Land of Northrhine-Westphalia were German nationals, LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen, 13 (2002).Google Scholar

¹⁴⁷ Under 21 years of age, § 232 (1), 2nd sentence.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁸ Theodor Lenckner & Walter Perron, in Adolf Schönke & Horst Schröder, Strafgesetzbuch § 180b, para. 2 (25th ed. 1997); Tröndle & Fischer, supra note 135, at § 180b, para. 2.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁹ § 6 No. 4 StGB.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁰ LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen 3 and 14 (2002).Google Scholar

¹⁵¹ § 232 (1) StGB, previously § 180b (1) .Google Scholar

¹⁵² Unless it is an over-exaggerated fear of general risk of life, Lenckner & Perron, supra note 148, at § 180b, para. 6.Google Scholar

¹⁵³ For example by drug addiction or as a consequence of fleeing from supervised living conditions, Tröndle & Fischer, supra note 135, at § 180b, para. 5.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁴ 42 BGHSt 399; Lenckner & Perron, supra note 148, at § 180b, para. 12Google Scholar

¹⁵⁵ Tröndle, & Fischer, , supra note 135, at § 180b, para. 5; answering in the positive: Lenckner & Perron, supra note 148, at § 180b, para. 6; BT-Drs. 12/2046, p. 4.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁶ Tröndle & Fischer, supra note 135, at § 180b, para. 5.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁷ BGH, 1997 JZ 153, 154 (= 42 BGHSt 179 ff.); Tröndle & Fischer, supra note 135, at § 180b, para. 11; Hofmann, supra note 26, at 363; BGH, judgment of 18 October 2001, 3 StR 247/01.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁸ BT Drs. 7/514, p. 10; BGH, 52 NJW 3276 (1999); 19 NStZ 349 (1999).Google Scholar

¹⁵⁹ BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004).Google Scholar

¹⁶⁰ BGH, 19 NStZ 349 (1999); Tröndle & Fischer, supra note 135, at § 180b, para. 10.Google Scholar

¹⁶¹ BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004).Google Scholar

¹⁶² The new § 232 StGB lowers the threshold with regard to the intensity of the influence of the trafficker (from “bestimmen” in § 180b (old) to “dazu bringen”, see BT Drs. 15/3045, p. 8.Google Scholar

¹⁶³ BGH, judgment of 27 May 2004, 3 StR 500/02; judgment of 20 June 2002, 3StR 135/01, p. 8 f.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁴ BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004); 45 BGHSt 158, 161 ff.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁵ § 232 (1) now puts these on an equal par with prostitution, see BT Drs. 15/3045, p. 8.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁶ BGH, 52 NJW 1044 (1999).Google Scholar

¹⁶⁷ Tröndle & Fischer, supra note 135, at § 180b, para. 6.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁸ 45 BGHSt 158, 163; Tröndle & Fischer, supra note 135, at § 180b, para. 17.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁹ Tröndle & Fischer, supra note 135, at § 180b, para. 7.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁰ BGH, 20 NStZ 86 (2000).Google Scholar

¹⁷¹ 33 BGHSt 353; BGH, 52 JZ 153, 155 (1997) (= 42 BGHSt 179 ff.); BGH, 3 StR 135/01, 20 June 2001; BT-Drs. 12/2589, p. 8; Wilfried Bottke, Zur Einordnung einer fremdbestimmten Intensivierung einer Prostitutionsausübung unter die Tatbestände des StGB, Juristische Rundschau 250 (1997); Friedrich Dencker, Prostituierte als Opfer von Menschenhandel, 9 NStZ 249 (1989); see also Dreixler, supra note 29, at 215.Google Scholar

¹⁷² Dencker, supra note 171.Google Scholar

¹⁷³ See BT Drs. 15/3045, p. 8Google Scholar

¹⁷⁴ BT Drs. 15/4048, p. 12.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁵ This is especially problematic where statement stands against statement without any further evidence. It is exacerbated when there are inconsistencies in the witness statements, Cf. BGH, judgment of 30 May 2000, 4 StR 24/00; Birgit Thoma, Rechtliche Problemstellungen, in Barbara Koelges et al., Probleme der Strafverfolgung und des Zeuginnenschutzes in Menschenhandelsprozessen 18, 24 (2002).Google Scholar

¹⁷⁶ BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004); judgment of 20 June 2002, 3 StR 135/01. According to the statistics of trafficking victims in the Land of Northrhine-Westphalia in the year 2002, 22 women out of 203 victims in total already practiced prostitution in their home countries, see LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen,13, 18 (2002).Google Scholar

¹⁷⁷ BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004).Google Scholar

¹⁷⁸ §§ 181a, 180a StGB.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁹ Thoma, supra note 175; see Koelges & Welter-Kaschub, Auswertung der Prozessunterlagen, in Koelges. Supra note 175, at 66, 93 for examples of convictions for these “subsidiary” offences.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁰ As in BGH, judgment of 20 June 2002, 3StR 135/01.Google Scholar

¹⁸¹ BT Drs. 15/3045, p. 8.Google Scholar

¹⁸² Discussion in BGH, judgment of 27 May 2004, 3 StR 500/03, but left open (tendency to answer in the negative as these acts were not considered to be sufficiently separate forms of prostitution to amount to more intensive forms, except in the case of sexually transmitted diseases).Google Scholar

¹⁸³ BT Drs. 15/4048, p. 12.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁴ A direct exploitative intent was not required, Tröndle & Fischer, supra note 135, at § 180b, para. 8.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁵ This means an increase in the sanction (previously up to five years of fine) which was at least influenced by the requirements of the EU Framework Decision to provide – under certain circumstances – for a maxium sanction of at least eight years imprisonment, see BT Drs. 15/4048, p. 12. As a consequence, there was no need anymore to separately codify aggravating circumstances which were previously contained in § 180b (2) StGB (old).Google Scholar

¹⁸⁶ Six months imprisonment minimum up to five years, § 181a StGB.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁷ § 234 StGB, crime, minimum of one year imprisonment (maximum ten years).Google Scholar

¹⁸⁸ §§ 239a, 239b StGB.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁹ §§ 235, 236 StGB, respectively. Note that trafficking of children into sexual exploitation is a crime subject to more severe sanctions under § 232 (3) no. 1 StGB.Google Scholar

¹⁹⁰ § 181 StGB.Google Scholar

¹⁹¹ Results from the EU Framework Decision, see BT Drs. 15/3045, p. 9.Google Scholar

¹⁹² § 232 (3) StGB. See also Dreixler, supra note 29, at 218.Google Scholar

¹⁹³ § 232 (4) StGB, § 181 (1) no. 1 & 2 (old).Google Scholar

¹⁹⁴ Data according to Federal Criminal Office (Bundeskriminalamt (BKA), Lagebild Menschenhandel 2001 and 2002, respectively, available at http://www.bka.de/lageberichte/mh/2002/mh2002.pdf.Google Scholar

¹⁹⁵ A a change to a location where the victim is at the mercy of the perpetrator, BGH, 12 NStZ 43 (1992).Google Scholar

¹⁹⁶ §§ 232 (2), 23 (1) StGB.Google Scholar

¹⁹⁷ See § 15 StGB. Hofmann, supra note 26, at 380.Google Scholar

¹⁹⁸ §§ 180a, 181a StGB. Hofmann, supra note 26, at 380.Google Scholar

¹⁹⁹ § 181c StGB.Google Scholar

²⁰⁰ Punishability of attempted offence in § 233a (3) StGB.Google Scholar

²⁰¹ Only under the limited conditions of § 30 StGB.Google Scholar

²⁰² § 233 (2) StGB: victim a child, serious physical abuse/danger of death, violence/threat or professional or gang action.Google Scholar

²⁰³ In the sense of an unsanctioned act of self-endangerment, as Geisler, supra note 90, at 174 has shown convincingly; see Dreixler, supra note 29, at 257, criticizing an underlying over-individualist conception of injustice. See also the unanimous agreement with the argument of van Essen, MdB, in the parliamentary debate on the amendment of the trafficking provisions, Deutscher Bundestag, Plenarprotokoll 15/109 of 7 May 2004, p. 9949.Google Scholar

²⁰⁴ Geisler, supra note 90, at 175; Dreixler, supra note 29, at 264.Google Scholar

²⁰⁵ § 95 (5) AufenthG.Google Scholar

²⁰⁶ Supra, note 69.Google Scholar

²⁰⁷ § 154b (3) StPO.Google Scholar

²⁰⁸ Hailbronner, supra note 58, at A 1, § 92 AuslG, para. 21.Google Scholar

²⁰⁹ Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 57.Google Scholar

²¹⁰ VG Hamburg, 8 VG 3964/99, judgment of 11 January 2001, InfAuslR 218 (2001): breach of § 92 (1) No. 1 and 6 AuslG {now § 95 (1) no. 1, 3 AufenthG} justifies expulsion unless lack of blameworthiness is positively confirmed. When a criminal procedure is not initiated (and hence no finding of lack of blame occurs), there are heightened requirements of proportionality if the expulsion occurs for reasons of public interest (preventative deterrence).Google Scholar

²¹¹ Strafbefehl, § 407 StPO.Google Scholar

²¹² § 47 (1) StGB provides that short prison sentences of less than six months are the exception and need to be justified by special circumstances. The underlying rationale is that the harmful effect of being exposed to a prison environment outweighs any corrective effect of short sentences.Google Scholar

²¹³ Aurnhammer, supra note 42, at 58.Google Scholar

²¹⁴ Eric Minthe, Illegale Migration und Schleusungskriminalität, in Illegale Migration und Schleusungskriminalität 17, 23 (Minthe ed., 2002); Kerstin Nowotny, Schleusungskriminalität aus staatsanwaltlicher Sicht, in id., at 93, 102.Google Scholar

²¹⁵ §154c StPO.Google Scholar

²¹⁶ § 154 c (2) StPOGoogle Scholar

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²¹⁸ Id., at 200.Google Scholar

²¹⁹ § 31 AufenthG.Google Scholar

²²⁰ BGBl. 2000 I, p. 742.Google Scholar

²²¹ § 31 (2), 2^nd sentence AufenthG.Google Scholar

²²² Joachim Renzikowski, Frauenhandel – Freiheit für die Täter, Abschiebung für die Opfer?, 32 ZRP 53, 54 (1999).Google Scholar

²²³ Hofmann, supra note 26, at 350, 383, and 398 stresses the law-enforcement deficit; Schroeder, supra note 19, at 233: “symbolic criminal law”.Google Scholar

²²⁴ Dreixler, supra note 29, at 231; Hofmann, supra note 26, at 399.Google Scholar

²²⁵ No. 42.3.2 of the Guidelines (Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschriften zum Ausländerrecht), Bundesanzeiger, Beilage Nr. 188a of 6 October 2000.Google Scholar

²²⁶ BKA, Lagebild Menschenhandel 2001, p. 21.Google Scholar

²²⁷ “Duldung” under § 60a (2) AufenthG.Google Scholar

²²⁸ Only a waiver of expulsion.Google Scholar

²²⁹ § 11 (2) AufenthG.Google Scholar

²³⁰ Masuch, Thorsten, in Huber, B 100 § 55, para. 75; Renner, supra note 51, at § 43, para. 719; § 20, para. 80; Renzikowski, supra note 222, at 55, FN 31 lists the Guidelines issued by the Länder.Google Scholar

²³¹ Under§ 60a (2) AufenthG. The discretion under this norm is said to be reduced to zero, Renzikowski, supra note 222, at 55, 58 (1999); Hofmann, supra note 26, at 401; Thoma, supra note 175, at 26.Google Scholar

²³² § 258 StGB.Google Scholar

²³³ Renzikowski, supra note 222, at 58.Google Scholar

²³⁴ Id. Incidentally, it would make an interesting empirical study to find out how far the prosecution makes use of these special responsibilities.Google Scholar

²³⁵ § 60a (3) AufenthG.Google Scholar

²³⁶ § 55 AuslG (old) – § 60a (2) AufenthG. Bundeskriminalamt, Lagebild Menschenhandel 16 (2002).Google Scholar

²³⁷ See also Bundesamt für Arbeit, Erlass of 29 May 2001, Az. IIa7-51/45.Google Scholar

²³⁸ Bundeskriminalamt, BKA, a federal police force.Google Scholar

²³⁹ See also LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen 27 (2002).Google Scholar

²⁴⁰ BKA, Lagebild Menschenhandel 21 (2001) The example is quoted of a woman who returned to Germany to give evidence who was seriously threatened and attacked.Google Scholar

²⁴¹ It may be added that she was prepared to act as witness in new criminal proceedings in spite of the likelihood of being expelled again afterwards, LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen 24, 29 (2002).Google Scholar

²⁴² No. 53.6.1 of the Guidelines (Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschriften zum Ausländerrecht), Bundesanzeiger, Beilage Nr. 188a of 6 October 2000.Google Scholar

²⁴³ An interdepartmental working group which united representatives of several government departments, the Federal Criminal Office, the respective Länder departments and counselling organizations. It was founded in 1997 and convenes several times a year. See also Jörg Alt & Ralf Fodor, Rechtlos? Menschen ohne Papiere 101 (2001); see also Koelges, supra note 175, at 36.Google Scholar

²⁴⁴ Cf. Answer to a Parliamentary Question “Menschenhandel in Deutschland”, BT-Drs. 15/2065, p. 4.Google Scholar

²⁴⁵ See § 1 Asylum Applicants’ Benefits Act (Asylbewerberleistungsgesetz), BGBl. 1997 I, p. 2022, providing that asylum applicants, foreigners under a tolerance permit, foreigners whose deportation has to be stayed for humanitarian reasons, spouses and minor children have a right to benefits, provided they to not have a right to stay longer than six months.Google Scholar

²⁴⁶ BKA, Lagebild Menschenhandel 19, 22 (2001); 20 (2002); Hofmann, supra note 26, at 402; see already in this respect Dagmar Heine-Wiedemann, Konstruktion und Management von Menschenhandels-Fällen, 75 MschrKrim 121, 129 (1992).Google Scholar

²⁴⁷ See Statute of 11 December 2001, BGBl. I 2001, p. 3510; Thoma, supra note 175, at 29.Google Scholar

²⁴⁸ In the Land of Northrhine-Westphalia, eight women were placed in witness protection programmes in 2002, LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen 25 (2002).Google Scholar

²⁴⁹ § 30 AuslG (old) – §§ 23a, 24 (4), 25, 60 AufenthG.Google Scholar

²⁵⁰ The duty to leave the country, in principle, persists.Google Scholar

²⁵¹ Renzikowski, supra note 222, at 54; Heine-Wiedemann, supra note 246.Google Scholar

²⁵² Schur, supra note 126, at 171.Google Scholar

²⁵³ §§ 24 (4), 23a, 25, 60 AufenthG.Google Scholar

²⁵⁴ § 60 (5) AufenthG.Google Scholar

²⁵⁵ See also Dreixler, supra note 29, at 234.Google Scholar

²⁵⁶ Pointing to the conflict of interest Renzikowski, supra note 222, at 56, 59; Edzard Schmidt-Jortzig, Bekämpfung von Sexualdelikten in Deutschland und auf internationaler Ebene, 18 NStZ 441, 443 (1998); Hofmann, supra note 26, at 414.Google Scholar

²⁵⁷ According to § 60a (2) AufenthG.Google Scholar

²⁵⁸ Renzikowski, supra note 222, at 56.Google Scholar

²⁵⁹ § 203 StPO; Renzikowski, supra note 222, at 55.Google Scholar

²⁶⁰ Zeugenschutz.Google Scholar

²⁶¹ § 170 (2) StPO. Roxin, Strafverfahrensrecht § 14 B II (25th ed. 1998); Beulke, Strafprozessrecht para. 333 (2nd ed. 1996).Google Scholar

²⁶² §§ 153c, 154b StPO.Google Scholar

²⁶³ § 154b (3) StPO.Google Scholar

²⁶⁴ Principle of immediacy, § 250 StPO.Google Scholar

²⁶⁵ Supra, note 228.Google Scholar

²⁶⁶ Renzikowski, supra note 222. For recent data, see BKA, Lagebild Menschenhandel 16 (2002), available online. Out of a total number of 811 victims of trafficking, 17 % where deported, 27.5% were expelled, 16.3 % received a tolerance permit, 23.9 % returned voluntarily, and 5.5 % entered a witness protection program. The whereabouts of 21.1 % was unknown; see also Thoma, supra note 175, at 27.Google Scholar

²⁶⁷ §§ 180b, 181 StGB.Google Scholar

²⁶⁸ § 60a (2) AufenthG; BKA, Lagebild Menschenhandel 16 (2002).Google Scholar

²⁶⁹ § 251 (1) StPO; Thoma, supra note 175, at 27.Google Scholar

²⁷⁰ § 251 (2) StPO.Google Scholar

²⁷¹ Walter, supra note 89, at 476; Hofmann, supra note 26, at 410.Google Scholar

²⁷² BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004) dismissed an appeal on points of law. The appeal challenged a conviction on the grounds that absent witnesses, the whereabouts of whom were not known, were not heard. The court held that this did not vilify the conviction as the read-out statements were only used in so far as supported by other evidence. See also BGH, judgment of 2 July 2002, 1 StR 135/02; and judgment of 30 July 2002, 1 StR 82/02 in which a witness could not be found in Poland and a conviction for rape could not be obtained, especially since the original statement was not recorded and could only be introduced into the proceedings by summoning the original interviewer.Google Scholar

²⁷³ BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004) (supra note 272); BGH, judgment of 2 July 2002, 1 StR 135/02. See, however, in this context the case-law of the Eur. Ct. H.R., Lüdi v. Switzerland, judgment of 15 June 1992, Series A, No. 238, p. 21, para. 49; Birutis and others v. Lithuania, judgment of 28 March 2002, 2002 ECHR 350 in the context of the rights of defence under Art. 6 (1) ECHR.Google Scholar

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²⁷⁷ § 66b StPO.Google Scholar

²⁷⁸ BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004).Google Scholar

²⁷⁹ § 395 StPO.Google Scholar

²⁸⁰ §§ 180b, 181 StGB.Google Scholar

²⁸¹ BGBl. 1998 I, p. 820.Google Scholar

²⁸² § 406g StPO.Google Scholar

²⁸³ §§ 403 ff. StPO, so-called adhesion procedure.Google Scholar

²⁸⁴ A statute (Second Victim Protection Act, BT-Drs. 15/814 of 8 April 2003) passed by the Bundesrat on 14 May 2004 is intended to make the compenzation of victims in criminal proceedings easier by restricting the possibilities to refuse such applications.Google Scholar

²⁸⁵ See, e.g., BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004).Google Scholar

²⁸⁶ Statute of 7 January 1985 as amended on 6 December 2000, BGBl. 1985 I, p. 1, 2000 I, p. 1676.Google Scholar

²⁸⁷ § 138 BGB; Dreixler, supra note 29, at 239.Google Scholar

²⁸⁸ BGH, 45 NJW 2557 (1992); now departing from this in 55 NJW 1885 (2002), referring to a change in morality; Christian Armbrüster, Zivilrechtliche Folgen des Gesetzes zur Regelung der Rechtsverhältnisse der Prostituierten, 55 NJW 2763 (2002).Google Scholar

²⁸⁹ §§ 180a, 181a StGB; Schroeder, supra note 19, at 234; Cf. Erardo Cristoforo Rautenberg, Prostitution: Das Ende der Heuchelei ist gekommen!, 55 NJW 650, 651 (2002).Google Scholar

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²⁹² See supra, notes 13, and 16.Google Scholar

²⁹³ Similar Alt/Fodor, p. 101 f.Google Scholar

²⁹⁴ LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen, p. 29 (2002).Google Scholar

²⁹⁵ Id., at 24.Google Scholar

²⁹⁶ For recent legislation in this direction, see the example of Italy. Claudia Pisanello, Trafficking and Smuggling in Human Beings: The Italian Legal Perspective, in Guild & Minderhoud, supra note •; Raffaela Puggioni, Smuggling and Trafficking in Italy, in Guild & Minderhoud, supra note •.Google Scholar