Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-pfhbr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-15T13:15:57.925Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

CONFRONTING THE COMMUNAL GRAVE: A REASSESSMENT OF SOCIAL RELATIONS DURING THE HOLOCAUST IN EASTERN EUROPE

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 December 2019

JAN BURZLAFF Open the ORCID record for JAN BURZLAFF [Opens in a new window]
JAN BURZLAFF*
Affiliation:
Harvard University
*
Department of History, Robinson Hall, 35 Quincy Street, 02138Cambridge, MA, USAburzlaff@g.harvard.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This historiographical review focuses on the complex interactions between Nazi Germany, local populations, and east European Jews during the Holocaust. Braving fierce historical revisionism in eastern Europe and the Baltic states, recent studies have shifted the spotlight from Germans to Poles, Ukrainians, Russians, Lithuanians, and other ethnicities. As a result, the analytic categories with which most historians still work – notably ‘perpetrator/victim/bystander’ and ‘collaboration/resistance’ – have outlived their usefulness. A more complex picture of the Nazi-occupied territories in eastern Europe has emerged and now awaits new theoretical frameworks. This article argues that past paradigms blinded scholars to a range of groups lost in the cracks and to behaviours remaining outside the political sphere. Through four criteria that shed light on the social history of the Holocaust in eastern Europe, it draws connections between central and east European, German, Jewish, and Soviet histories, in order to engage with other fields and disciplines that examine modern mass violence and genocide. As Holocaust studies stands at a crossroads, only a transnational history including all ethnicities and deeper continuities, both temporal and geographical, will enhance our knowledge of how social relations shaped the very evolution of the Holocaust.

Type
Historiographical Reviews
Information
The Historical Journal , Volume 63 , Issue 4 , September 2020 , pp. 1054 - 1077
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

My warmest thanks to many friends and colleagues who provided materials, supported me, and commented on earlier drafts: Jeffrey Burds, Kate Docking, Tom Frydel, Hayley Jaffe, Alison Frank Johnson, Terry Martin, Derek Penslar, Yuri Radchenko, Barbara Rosenwein, Grzegorz Rossoliński-Liebe, Heather Rothman, Māris Ruks, and Anton Weiss-Wendt, as well as Andrew Arsan and two anonymous reviewers. All remaining errors are mine.

References

1 Foner, Eric, Who owns history? Rethinking the past in a changing world (New York, NY, 2003)Google Scholar.

2 Lipstadt, Deborah, Antisemitism: here and now (New York, NY, 2019)Google Scholar; Hayes, Peter, Why? Explaining the Holocaust (New York, NY, 2017), pp. 329–43Google Scholar.

3 Meierhenrich, Jens and Pendas, Devin, eds., Political trials in theory and history (Cambridge, 2017)Google Scholar. On ‘collaboration’, see, for instance, Gaunt, David, Levine, Paul A., and Palosuo, Laura, eds., Collaboration and resistance during the Holocaust: Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (Bern, 2004)Google Scholar.

4 Hackmann, Jörg, the, ‘Defending “good name” of the Polish nation: politics of history as a battlefield in Poland, 2015–18’, Journal of Genocide Research, 20 (2018), pp. 587–606CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Feferman, Kiril and Kabalek, Kobi, eds., ‘Scholars' forum (part II): Holocaust historiography in eastern Europe’, Dapim: Studies on the Holocaust, 31 (2017), pp. 261–306Google Scholar; Braham, Randolph L. and Kovács, András, eds., The Holocaust in Hungary: seventy years later (Budapest, 2016)Google Scholar.

5 Grinchenko, Gelinada and Narvselius, Eleonora, eds., Traitors, collaborators and deserters in contemporary European politics of memory (Kharkiv, 2017)Google Scholar.

6 Jinks, Rebecca, Representing genocide: the Holocaust as paradigm? (New York, NY, 2016)Google Scholar.

7 Hayes, Peter and Roth, John K., eds., The Oxford handbook of Holocaust studies (Oxford, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bloxham, Donald and Moses, A. Dirk, eds., The Oxford handbook of genocide studies (Oxford, 2010)Google Scholar.

8 Hilberg, Raul, Perpetrators, victims, bystanders (New York, NY, 1992), pp. xii and 195–268Google Scholar; Marrus, Michael, The Holocaust in history (Hanover, NH, 1987), pp. 156–83Google Scholar.

9 Morina, Christina and Thijs, Krijn, eds., Probing the limits of categorization: the bystander in Holocaust history (New York, NY, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bajohr, Frank and Löw, Andrea, eds., The Holocaust and European societies: social processes and social dynamics (Cambridge, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Grabowski, Jan, ‘The role of “bystanders” in the implementation of the “Final Solution” in occupied Poland’, Yad Vashem Studies, 43 (2015), pp. 113–31Google Scholar.

10 Ehrenreich, Robert M. and Cole, Tim, ‘The perpetrator–bystander–victim constellation: rethinking genocidal relationships’, Human Organization, 64 (2005), pp. 213–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For revisions, see Böhler, Jochen and Młynarczyk, Jacek Andrzej, ‘Collaboration and resistance in wartime Poland (1939–1945): a case for differentiated occupation studies’, Journal of Modern European History, 16 (2018), pp. 225–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Drapac, Vesna and Pritchard, Gareth, Resistance and collaboration in Hitler's empire (Basingstoke, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11 Mazower, Mark, ‘Violence and the state in the twentieth century’, American Historical Review, 107 (2002), pp. 1158–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moses, A. Dirk, ‘Paranoia and partisanship: genocide studies, Holocaust historiography, and the apocalyptic conjuncture’, Historical Journal, 54 (2011), pp. 553–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Friedman, Philipp, ‘Outline of program for Holocaust research’, in Friedman, Ada June, ed., Roads to extinction: essays on the Holocaust (New York, NY, 1980), pp. 565–76Google Scholar.

13 For a similar call, see Fisher, Gaëlle and Mezger, Caroline, eds., The Holocaust in the borderlands: interethnic relations and the dynamics of violence in occupied eastern Europe (Göttingen, 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bergen, Doris L., ‘Holocaust und Besatzungsgeschichte’, in Bajohr, Frank and Löw, Andrea, eds., Der Holocaust. Ergebnisse und neue Fragen der Forschung (Frankfurt, 2015), pp. 299–321Google Scholar.

14 See, among others, Dumitru, Diana, The state, antisemitism, and collaboration in the Holocaust: the borderlands of Romania and the Soviet Union (Cambridge, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Solonari, Vladimir, Purifying the nation: population exchange and ethnic cleansing in World War II Romania (Baltimore, MD, 2009)Google Scholar; Vági, Zoltán, Csosz, László, and Kádár, Gábor, The Holocaust in Hungary: evolution of a genocide (Lanham, MD, 2013)Google Scholar.

15 Orsi, Jared, ‘Construction and contestation: toward a unifying methodology for borderlands history’, History Compass, 12 (2014), pp. 433–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 Confino, Alon, A world without Jews: the Nazi imagination from persecution to genocide (New Haven, CT, 2014)Google Scholar; Stone, Dan, ‘Holocaust historiography and cultural history’, Dapim: Studies on the Holocaust, 23 (2009), pp. 52–68Google Scholar.

17 Kühne, Thomas, ‘Colonialism and the Holocaust: continuities, causations, and complexities’, Journal of Genocide Research, 13 (2013), pp. 339–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar; ‘Scholarly forum on the Holocaust and genocide’, Dapim: Studies on the Holocaust, 27 (2013), pp. 40–73.

18 Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper, Empires in world history: power and the politics of difference (Princeton, NJ, 2010).

19 Kocka, Jürgen, ‘Looking back on the Sonderweg’, Central European History, 51 (2018), pp. 137–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Friedländer, Saul, ‘An integrated history of the Holocaust: some methodological challenges’, in Stone, Dan, ed., The Holocaust and historical methodology (New York, NY, 2012), pp. 181–9Google Scholar; Garbarini, Alexandra and Jaskot, Paul B., eds., New approaches to an integrated history of the Holocaust: social history, representation, theory, Lessons and Legacies, 13 (Evanston, IL, 2018)Google Scholar.

21 Levene, Mark, The crisis of genocide: devastation: the European rimlands 1912–1938 (Oxford, 2013)Google Scholar; Bloxham, Donald, Genocide, the world wars and the unweaving of Europe (Oxford, 2009)Google Scholar; Moses, A. Dirk, ‘Conceptual blockages and definitional dilemmas in the “racial century”: genocides of indigenous peoples and the Holocaust’, Patterns of Prejudice, 36 (2007), pp. 7–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22 Dieckmann, Christoph, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik in Litauen, 1941–1944 (Göttingen, 2011)Google Scholar; Weiss-Wendt, Anton, On the margins: essays on the history of Jews in Estonia (Budapest, 2017), p. 344Google Scholar; Bartov, Omer, Anatomy of a genocide: the life and death of a town called Buczacz (New York, NY, 2018), pp. 102–16Google Scholar; ‘Book forum: Bartov, Omer, Anatomy of a genocide: the life and death of a town called Buczacz (New York: Simon and Shuster, 2018)Google Scholar’, Journal of Genocide Research, 20 (2018), pp. 624–58.

23 For recent literature, see Bauerkämper, Arnd and Rossoliński-Liebe, Grzegorz, eds., Fascism without borders: transnational connections and cooperation between movements and regimes in Europe from 1918 to 1945 (Oxford, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 Kijek, Kamil, Dzieci modernizmu: świadomość, kultura i socjalizacja politycznamłodzieży żydowskiej w II Rzeczypospolitej (Children of modernism: awareness, culture and political socialization of Jewish youth in the Second Polish Republic) (Wrocław, 2017)Google Scholar; Heller, Daniel Kupfert, Jabotinsky's children: Polish Jews and the rise of right-wing Zionism (Princeton, NJ, 2017)Google Scholar.

25 Bacon, Gershon, ‘One Jewish Street? Reflections on unity and disunity in interwar Polish Jewry’, in Polonsky, Antony, Węgrzynek, Hanna, and Żbikowski, Andrzej, eds., New directions in the history of the Jews in the Polish lands (Boston, MA, 2018), pp. 324–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mendelsohn, Ezra, The Jews of east central Europe between the world wars (Bloomington, IN, 1983), pp. 43–83Google Scholar.

26 Struve, Kai, ‘Polish peasants in eastern Galicia: indifferent to the nation or pillars of Polishness? National attitudes in the light of Jozef Chalasinski's collection of peasant youth memoirs’, Acta Poloniae Historica, 109 (2014), pp. 37–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27 Judson, Pieter, The Habsburg empire: a new history (Cambridge, MA, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Zahra, Tara, ‘Imagined noncommunities: national indifference as a category of analysis’, Slavic Review, 69 (2010), pp. 93–119CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 Snyder, Timothy, Black earth: the Holocaust as history and warning (New York, NY, 2015), pp. 191–206Google Scholar.

29 Struve, Kai, Barkan, Elazar, and Cole, Elizabeth A., eds., Shared history – divided memory: Jews and others in Soviet-occupied Poland, 1939–1941 (Leipzig, 2007)Google Scholar.

30 Hanebrink, Paul, A specter haunting Europe: the myth of Judeo-Bolshevism (Cambridge, MA, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Michlic, Joanna, ‘The Soviet occupation of Poland, 1939–41, and the stereotype of the anti-Polish and pro-Soviet Jew’, Jewish Social Studies: History, Culture, Society, 13 (2007), pp. 135–76Google Scholar.

31 Engelking, Barbara, ‘Powiat bielski’ (‘Bielski County’), in Engelking, Barbara and Grabowski, Jan, eds., Dalej jest noc. Losy Żydów w wybranych powiatach okupowanej Polski (It's still night: the fate of Jews in selected counties of Poland) (Warsaw, 2018), pp. 168–70Google Scholar.

32 Gross, Jan T., Neighbors: the destruction of the Jewish community in Jedwabne, Poland (Princeton, NJ, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33 Kopstein, Jeffrey S. and Wittenberg, Jason, Intimate violence: anti-Jewish pogroms on the eve of the Holocaust (Ithaca, NY, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an overview of earlier literature, see Burds, Jeffrey, Holocaust in Rovno: the massacre at Sosenki Forest, November 1941 (Basingstoke, 2013), pp. 6–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

34 Struve, Kai, Deutsche Herrschaft, ukrainischer Nationalismus, antijüdische Gewalt. Der Sommer 1941 in der Westukraine (Berlin, 2015), p. 557CrossRefGoogle Scholar, emphasizing activists from the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN-B).

35 Finkel, Evgeny, Ordinary Jews: choice and survival during the Holocaust (Princeton, NJ, 2017), pp. 7 and 191Google Scholar; book forum, Shofar, 36 (2018), pp. 239–47; Weinberg, Gerhard, ‘Two separate issues? Historiography of World War II and the Holocaust’, in Bankier, David and Michman, Dan, eds., Holocaust historiography in context: emergence, challenges, polemics and achievements (New York, NY, 2008), pp. 379–401Google Scholar.

36 Major milestones stem from Christopher R. Browning, Dieter Pohl, Michael Wildt, Edward B. Westermann, Thomas Kühne, and Sara Berger. For Nazi morality, see Wälzer, Harald, Täter. Wie aus normalen Menschen Massenmörder werden (Frankfurt, 2005), p. 31Google Scholar. For a synthesis, see Lewy, Guenter, Perpetrators: the world of the Holocaust killers (Oxford, 2017)Google Scholar.

37 Shepherd, Ben, ‘The clean Wehrmacht, the war of extermination, and beyond’, Historical Journal, 52 (2009), pp. 455–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a recent example, see Siemens, Daniel, Stormtroopers: a new history of Hitler's Brownshirts (New Haven, CT, 2017)Google Scholar.

38 Lower, Wendy, Hitler's furies: German women in the Nazi killing fields (Boston, MA, 2013)Google Scholar; Harvey, Elizabeth, Women and the Nazi east: agents and witnesses of Germanization (New Haven, CT, 2003)Google Scholar.

39 For a recent summary, see Chu, Winson, ‘Ethnic cleansing and nationalization in the German–Polish and German–Czech borderlands’, German Studies Review, 41 (2018), pp. 143–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

40 Cesarani, David, Final Solution: the fate of the Jews, 1933–1949 (London, 2015), pp. 382 and 394Google Scholar; Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik in Litauen, p. 252; Motadel, David, Islam and Nazi Germany's war (Cambridge, MA, 2014), pp. 228–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Edele, Mark, Stalin's defectors: how Red Army soldiers became Hitler's collaborators, 1941–1945 (Oxford, 2017), pp. 33–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

41 Burds, Jeffrey, ‘“Turncoats, traitors, and provocateurs”: communist collaborators, the German occupation, and Stalin's NKVD, 1941–1943’, East European Politics and Societies and Cultures, 32 (2018), pp. 606–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 622.

42 Kudryashov, Sergei, ‘The hidden dimension: wartime collaboration in the Soviet Union’, in Erickson, John and Dilks, David, eds., Barbarossa: the Axis and the Allies (Edinburgh, 1994), pp. 238–54Google Scholar.

43 Gross, Jan T., ‘A colonial history of the bloodlands’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, 15 (2014), pp. 591–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 595; Grabowski, Jan, Hunt for the Jews: betrayal and murder in German-occupied Poland (Bloomington, IN, 2013), p. 172Google Scholar.

44 Dean, Martin, Collaboration in the Holocaust: crimes of the local police in Belorussia and Ukraine, 1941–44 (New York, NY, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rein, Leonid, The kings and the pawns: collaboration in Byelorussia during World War II (New York, NY, 2011)Google Scholar; Sylwia Szymańska-Smolkin, Fateful decisions: the Polish policemen and the Jewish population in occupied Poland, 1939–1944 (Ph.D. thesis, Toronto, 2017); Jan Grabowski, ‘The Polish police: collaboration in the Holocaust’, Ina Levine Annual Lecture, 17 Nov. 2016, https://archive.org/details/bib256980_001_001.

45 Bolianovskyi, Andrii et al. , ‘Belarusian auxiliaries, Ukrainian Waffen-SS soldiers and the special case of the Polish “Blue Police”’, in Böhler, Jochen and Gerwarth, Robert, eds., The Waffen-SS: a European history (Oxford, 2015), pp. 165–208Google Scholar; Ruks, Māris, Arāja Komandas Lettonia: no arhīvu materiāliem (The Latvian Arājs Commando: from archival material) (Riga, 2014)Google Scholar; Bartov, Anatomy of a genocide, p. 166.

46 Benz, Angelika, Handlanger der SS. Die Rolle der Trawniki-Männer im Holocaust (Berlin, 2015)Google Scholar.

47 Lehnstaedt, Stephan, Der Kern des Holocaust. Bełżec, Sobibór, Treblinka und die Aktion Reinhardt (Munich, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Libionka, Dariusz, Zagłada Żydów w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie. Zarys problematyki (The extermination of the Jews in the General Government: outline of the problems) (Lublin, 2017)Google Scholar; Arad, Yitzhak, The Operation Reinhard death camps: Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka (rev. edn, Bloomington, IN, 2018), p. 440CrossRefGoogle Scholar, for the death toll.

48 Grabowski, Hunt for the Jews, pp. 53–89. See also Grzegorz Rossoliński-Liebe, ‘Kollaboration im Zweiten Weltkrieg und im Holocaust: ein analytisches Konzept’, Docupedia-Zeitgeschichte, 19 July 2019, https://zeitgeschichte-digital.de/doks/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/1444/file/docupedia_rossolinski-liebe_kollaboration_v1_de_2019.pdf.

49 Gerlach, Christian, The extermination of the European Jews (Cambridge, 2016), p. 100CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

50 Zalc, Claire and Bruttmann, Tal, eds., Microhistories of the Holocaust (New York, NY, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Engelking and Grabowski, eds., Dalej jest noc.

51 Spector, Shmuel, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews 1941–1944 (Jerusalem, 1990), p. 256Google Scholar.

52 Gerlach, Extermination of the European Jews, p. 232.

53 Exeler, Franziska, ‘What did you do during the war? Personal responses to the aftermath of Nazi occupation’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, 17 (2016), pp. 805–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

54 Feferman, Kiril, The Holocaust in the Crimea and the north Caucasus (Jerusalem, 2016)Google Scholar.

55 Kunzel, Geraldien von Frijtag Drabbe, Hitler's Brudervolk: the Dutch and the colonization of occupied eastern Europe 1939–1945 (Abingdon, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

56 For an overview, see Föllmer, Moritz, ‘The subjective dimension of Nazism’, Historical Journal, 56 (2013), pp. 1107–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

57 Rossoliński-Liebe, Grzegorz, The fascist kernel of Ukrainian genocidal nationalism (Pittsburgh, PA, 2015), p. 41CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

58 McBride, Jared, ‘Peasants into perpetrators: the OUN-UPA and the ethnic cleansing of Volhynia, 1943–1944’, Slavic Review, 75 (2016), pp. 630–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rossoliński-Liebe, Grzegorz, Stepan Bandera: the life and afterlife of a Ukrainian nationalist: fascism, genocide, and cult (Stuttgart, 2014)Google Scholar.

59 Aliza Luft, ‘On murder and morality: how social perception mediates moral judgment about violence’, unpublished paper, Dec. 2018, draft kindly provided; Monroe, Kristen, ‘Cracking the code of genocide: the moral psychology of rescuers, bystanders, and Nazis during the Holocaust’, Political Psychology, 29 (2008), pp. 699–736CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

60 Bloxham, Donald, The Final Solution: a genocide (Oxford, 2009), p. 296CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mann, Michael, The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing (Cambridge, 2005), p. 289Google Scholar (pogroms).

61 Desbois, Patrick, The Holocaust by bullets: a priest's journey to uncover the truth behind the murder of 1.5 million Jews (New York, NY, 2008)Google Scholar; Al'tman, Il'ia, Zhertvy nenavisti: Kholokhost v SSSR, 1941–1945 (Victims of hate: the Holocaust in the USSR, 1941–1945) (Moscow, 2002), p. 303Google Scholar.

62 Himka, John-Paul, ‘Former Ukrainian policemen in the Ukrainian national insurgency: continuing the Holocaust outside German service’, in Lower, Wendy and Rossi, Lauren Faulkner, eds., New directions in Holocaust research and education, Lessons and Legacies, 12 (Evanston, IL, 2017), pp. 141–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

63 For an overview, see Beorn, Waitman Wade, The Holocaust in eastern Europe: at the epicentre of the Final Solution (London, 2018), pp. 247–55Google Scholar.

64 Bartov, Omer, ‘Eastern Europe as the site of genocide’, Journal of Modern History, 80 (2008), pp. 557–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 Kay, Alex J. and Stahel, David, eds., Mass violence in Nazi-occupied Europe (Bloomington, IN, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tönsmeyer, Tatjana, Haslinger, Peter, and Laba, Agnes, eds., Coping with hunger and shortage under German occupation in World War II (Basingstoke, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

66 See, among others, Bender, Sara, In enemy land: the Jews of Kielce and the region, 1939–1946 (Boston, MA, 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rączy, Elżbieta, Zagłada Żydów w Dystrykcie Krakowskim w Latach, 1939–1945 (The extermination of Jews in the Krakow District, 1939–1945) (Rzeszów, 2014)Google Scholar; Silberklang, David, Gates of tears: the Holocaust in the Lublin District (Jerusalem, 2013)Google Scholar; Cohen, Laurie, Smolensk under the Nazis: everyday life in occupied Russia (Rochester, NY, 2013)Google Scholar.

67 Snyder, Timothy, Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin (New York, NY, 2010)Google Scholar; reviews by Diner, Dan, ‘Topography of interpretation; reviewing Timothy Snyder's Bloodlands’, Contemporary European History, 21 (2012), pp. 125–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and, critically, Bartov, Omer, Slavic Review, 71 (2012), pp. 424–8Google Scholar. For the tension between scales, see Mark Mazower, ‘God's grief’, Times Literary Supplement, 17 Sept. 2010, pp. 7–8.

68 Winstone, Martin, The dark heart of Hitler's Europe: Nazi rule in Poland under the General Government (London, 2014)Google Scholar; Kochanski, Halik, The eagle unbowed: Poland and the Poles in the Second World War (Cambridge, MA, 2012)Google Scholar.

69 Zimmerman, Joshua D., The Polish Underground and the Jews, 1939–1945 (New York, NY, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

70 Dreifuss, Havi, Changing perceptions on Polish–Jewish relations during the Holocaust (Jerusalem, 2012)Google Scholar.

71 Frydel, Tomasz, ‘Judenjagd: reassessing the role of ordinary Poles as perpetrators in the Holocaust’, in Williams, Timothy and Buckley-Zistel, Susanne, eds., Perpetrators and perpetration of mass violence: action, motivations and dynamics (Abingdon, 2018), pp. 187–203CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

72 Blackwell, Martin J., Kyiv as regime city: the return of Soviet power after Nazi occupation (Rochester, NY, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

73 Wolf, Gerhard, Ideologie und Herrschaftsrationalität. Nationalsozialistische Germanisierungspolitik in Polen (Hamburg, 2012)Google Scholar.

74 Bergen, Doris L., ‘The Nazi concept of “Volksdeutsche” and the exacerbation of anti-Semitism in eastern Europe, 1939–45’, Journal of Contemporary History, 29 (1994), pp. 569–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Steinhart, Eric C., The Holocaust and Germanization of Ukraine (New York, NY, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Outside this essay's scope, see, for instance, Zakić, Mirna, Ethnic Germans and national socialism in Yugoslavia in World War II (New York, NY, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

75 Bajohr, Frank, ‘Aryanization’ in Hamburg: the economic exclusion of Jews and the confiscation of their property in Nazi Germany (Oxford, 2002)Google Scholar; Fogg, Shannon L., Stealing home: looting, restitution, and reconstructing Jewish lives in France, 1942–1947 (Oxford, 2017), pp. 33–82Google Scholar; Kleemann, Hein and Kudryashov, Sergei, Occupied economies: an economic history of Nazi-occupied Europe, 1939–1945 (London and New York, NY, 2012)Google Scholar.

76 Aly, Götz, Hitler's beneficiaries: plunder, racial war, and the Nazi welfare state (New York, NY, 2006)Google Scholar; idem, Europa gegen die Juden 1880–1945 (Frankfurt, 2017).

77 Wylegała, Anna, ‘About “Jewish things”: Jewish property in eastern Galicia during World War II’, Yad Vashem Studies, 44 (2016), pp. 83–119Google Scholar. Outside this essay's geographical scope, see Svetlana Suveica, ‘Local agency and the appropriation of Jewish property in Romania's eastern borderland: public employees during the Holocaust in Bessarabia (1941–1944)’, in Fischer and Metzger, eds., Holocaust in the borderlands, pp. 133–56; Schmid, Sanela, Deutsche und italienische Besatzung im unabhängigen Staat Kroatien, 1941 bis 1943/45 (Berlin, 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

78 Grabowski, Jan and Libionka, Dariusz, eds., Klucze i kasa. O mieniu żydowskim w Polsce pod okupacją niemiecką i we wczesnych latach powojennych, 1939–1950 (Keys and cash: Jewish property in Poland under the German occupation and in the early post-war years, 1939–1950) (Warsaw, 2014)Google Scholar; Dean, Martin, Robbing the Jews: the confiscation of Jewish property in the Holocaust, 1933–1945 (Cambridge, 2008)Google Scholar.

79 Gildea, Robert, Wieviorka, Olivier, and Warring, Anette, eds., Surviving Hitler and Mussolini: daily life in occupied Europe (Oxford, 2006)Google Scholar.

80 Kurylyshyn, Kostiantyn and Dashekvich, Iaroslav R., Ukrains’ke zhyttia v umovakh nimets’koi okupatsii (1939–1944 rr.) (Ukrainian life and mentalities during the German occupation (1939–1944) (Lviv, 2010)Google Scholar.

81 Bergen, Doris L., Löw, Andrea, and Hájková, Anna, eds., Alltag im Holocaust. Jüdisches Leben im Großdeutschen Reich 1941–1945 (Munich, 2013)Google Scholar.

82 Johnson, Walter, ‘On agency’, Journal of Social History, 37 (2003), pp. 113–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 115.

83 Due Enstad, Johannes, Soviet Russians under Nazi occupation: fragile loyalties in World War II (Cambridge, 2018), p. 6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

84 For this trend, see Bernstein, Seth, ‘Ambiguous homecoming: retribution, exploitation and social tensions during repatriation to the USSR, 1944–1946’, Past & Present, 242 (2019), pp. 193–226CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hellbeck, Jochen, Stalingrad: the city that defeated the Third Reich (New York, NY, 2015)Google Scholar.

85 Cerovic, Masha, Les enfants de Staline. La guerre des partisans soviétiques (1941–1944) (Paris, 2018)Google Scholar.

86 Hunczak, Taras, ‘Ukrainian–Jewish relations during the Soviet and Nazi occupations’, in Boshyk, Yury, ed., Ukraine during World War II: history and its aftermath. A symposium (Edmonton, 1986), pp. 39–57Google Scholar; Weiss, Aharon, ‘Jewish–Ukrainian relations in western Ukraine during the Holocaust’, in Aster, Howard and Potichnyj, Peter J., eds., Ukrainian–Jewish relations in historical perspective (Edmonton, 1990), pp. 409–20Google Scholar.

87 Bergen, Doris L., ‘Religion and genocide: a historiographical survey’, in Stone, Dan, ed., The historiography of genocide (London, 2008), pp. 194–227CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

88 Motadel, Islam and Nazi Germany's war.

89 Grachova, Sofia, ‘Vony zhyly sered nas?’ (‘They lived among us, didn't they?’), Krytyka (2005), pp. 22–6Google Scholar; Kubátová, Hana and Lánícek, Jan, Jews and Gentiles in central and eastern Europe during the Holocaust: history and memory (London, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

90 Wachsmann, Nikolaus, KL: a history of the Nazi concentration camps (London, 2015)Google Scholar.

91 Jarkowska-Natkaniec, Alicja, Wymuszona współpraca czy zdrada? Wokół przypadków kolaboracji Żydów w okupowanym (Forced co-operation or betrayal? Cases of Jewish collaboration under the occupation) (Krakow, 2018)Google Scholar; Person, Katarzyna, ‘Sexual violence during the Holocaust: the case of forced prostitution in the Warsaw ghetto’, Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies, 33 (2015), pp. 103–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

92 Waxman, Zoë, Women in the Holocaust: a feminist history (Oxford, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

93 Two samples are Bemporad, Elissa and Warren, Joyce W., eds., Women and genocide (Bloomington, IN, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Carey, Maddy, Jewish masculinity in the Holocaust: between destruction and construction (London, 2017)Google Scholar.

94 ‘Holocaust and the history of gender and sexuality’, forum with Mailänder, Elissa, Hájková, Anna, Grossmann, Atina, Bergen, Doris, and Farges, Patrick, German History, 36 (2018), pp. 78–100Google Scholar.

95 But see Manoschek, Walter, ‘Serbien ist judenfrei!’ Militärische Besatzungspolitik und Judenvernichtung in Serbien 1941/42 (Munich, 1995)Google Scholar.

96 Kaplan, Marion, ‘Did gender matter during the Holocaust?’, Jewish Social Studies, 24 (2019), pp. 37–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kühne, Thomas, ‘Introduction: masculinity and the Third Reich’, Central European History, 51 (2018), pp. 354–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

97 Knowles, Anne Kelly, Cole, Tim, and Giordano, Alberto, eds., Geographies of the Holocaust (Bloomington, IN, 2014)Google Scholar; Beorn, Waitman, ‘Last stop in Lwów: Janowska as a hybrid camp’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 32 (2018), pp. 445–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

98 For first insights, see Blackbourn, David, The conquest of nature: water, landscape, and the making of modern Germany (New York, NY, 2006), p. 279Google Scholar.

99 Lower, Wendy, ‘Holocaust studies: the spatial turn’, in Baranowski, Shelley, Nolzen, Armin, and Szejnmann, Claus-Christian W., eds., A companion to Nazi Germany (Hoboken, NJ, 2018), pp. 565–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

100 Edele, Mark, Grossmann, Atina, and Fitzpatrick, Sheila, eds., Shelter from the Holocaust: rethinking Jewish survival in the Soviet Union (Detroit, MI, 2017)Google Scholar; Denning, Andrew, ‘“Life is movement, movement is life!” Mobility politics and the circulatory state in Nazi Germany’, American Historical Review, 123 (2018), pp. 1479–1503CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

101 Fogelman, Eva, Cohen, Sharon Kangisser, and Ofer, Dalia, eds., Children in the Holocaust and its aftermath: historical and psychological studies of the Kestenberg archive (New York, NY, 2017)Google Scholar; Michman, Dan, ed., Hiding, sheltering and borrowing identities: avenues of rescue during the Holocaust (Jerusalem, 2017)Google Scholar.

102 Oliner, Samuel P. and Oliner, Pearl M., The altruistic personality (New York, NY, 1988)Google Scholar; Libionka, Dariusz, ‘Polish literature on organized help and individual help to the Jews (1945–2008)’, Holocaust: Studies and Materials (2010), pp. 11–75Google Scholar.

103 Luft, Aliza, ‘Toward a dynamic theory of action at the micro-level of genocide: killing, desistance, and saving in 1994 Rwanda’, Sociological Theory, 33 (2015), pp. 148–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

104 Gross, Jan T., Polish society under German occupation: the Generalgouvernement, 1939–1944 (Princeton, NJ, 1979)Google Scholar.

105 Bloxham, Final Solution, p. 323.

106 ‘Rethinking anti-Semitism’, American Historical Review, 123 (2018), pp. 1122–1245.

107 Rosenwein, Barbara H. and Cristiani, Riccardo, What is the history of emotions? (Malden, MA, 2018)Google Scholar.

108 Hördler, Stefan, ‘Sichtbarmachen: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen einer Analyse von NS-Täter-Fotografien’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 65 (2017), pp. 259–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Baranowski, Shelley, ‘The future of central European studies’, Central European History, 51 (2018), pp. 155–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

109 Kühl, Stefan, Ordinary organizations: why normal men carried out the Holocaust (Cambridge, 2016)Google Scholar.

110 Segal, Raz, ‘The modern state, the question of genocide, and Holocaust scholarship’, Journal of Genocide Research, 20 (2018), pp. 108–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

111 Levine, Madeline G., ‘Julian Tuwim: “We, the Polish Jews…”’, Polish Review, 17 (1972), pp. 82–9Google Scholar, at p. 87.