Last updated 10th July 2024: Online ordering is currently unavailable due to technical issues. We apologise for any delays responding to customers while we resolve this. For further updates please visit our website https://www.cambridge.org/news-and-insights/technical-incident
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 29 January 2014
The late Habsburg Monarchy produced two of the most renowned peace activists of their day: Bertha von Suttner and Alfred Fried. In comparison to these two Nobel Peace laureates, the main association of Austro-pacifism – the Österreichische Friedensgesellschaft (ÖFG) – is less well known. The article concentrates on this organization, which had been founded in 1891, and it draws attention to the political and intellectual environment in which it operated. The ÖFG originated in the milieu of Austro-German liberalism, but had an ambivalent rapport with liberal politics. The Austro-pacifists’ focus on supranational principles and dynastic loyalty sat uneasily with the national dimensions of Cisleithanian politics. The obstacles encountered by the ÖFG illustrate wider aspects of the political culture of fin-de-siècle Austria, ranging from the question of militarism in Austrian society to the challenges created by socialist and nationalist movements. As a whole, the article highlights the inherent limitations of Austro-pacifism, as reflected in its quest for respectability and its acceptance of the social and political order.
The author wishes to thank Tim Kirk, Axel Körner, and Matthew Potter for their comments on this article, Robert J. W. Evans for his earlier advice on Austrian history, and the article's anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful observations and invaluable suggestions.
1 Løvland, Jørgen Gunnnarsson, ‘Banquet speech’, in Haberman, Frederick, ed., Nobel Lectures including presentation speeches and laureates’ biographies: peace, 1910–1925 (Singapore, 1999), pp. 82–3Google Scholar.
2 Hamann, Brigitte, Bertha von Suttner: Ein Leben für den Frieden (Munich, 1986), pp. 330–44Google Scholar.
3 Neues Wiener Tagblatt, 11 Dec. 1905, as cited in Hamann, Brigitte, ‘Bertha von Sutner and Alfred Hermann Fried’, in Holl, Karl and Kjelling, Anne, eds.‚ The Nobel Peace Prize and the laureates: the meaning and acceptance of the Nobel Peace Prize in the prize winners’ countries (Frankfurt, 1994), p. 86Google Scholar.
4 Løvland, ‘Presentation’, in Haberman, ed., Nobel lectures, p. 238. On Fried, see Schönemann-Behrens, Petra, Alfred Hermann Fried: Friedensaktivist – Nobelpreisträger (Zurich, 2011)Google Scholar and Göhring, Walter, Verdrängt und Vergessen: Friedensnobelpreisträger Alfred Hermann Fried (Vienna, 2006)Google Scholar.
5 Holl, Karl, ‘Pazifismus’, in Brunner, Otto, ed., Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe: historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland (8 vols., Stuttgart, 1978), iv, pp. 771–3Google Scholar. The term ‘pacific-ism’ explicitly makes this distinction: Ceadel, Martin, Thinking about peace and war (Oxford, 1987), p. 5Google Scholar.
6 Cooper, Sandi, Patriotic pacifism: waging war on war in Europe 1815–1914 (New York, NY, 1991)Google Scholar.
7 Chickering, Roger, Imperial Germany and a world without war: the peace movement and German society, 1892–1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1975), p. 121Google Scholar. Cf. Holl, Karl, Pazifismus in Deutschland (Frankfurt, 1988), p. 15Google Scholar.
8 Richard R. Laurence, ‘The problem of peace and Austrian society, 1889–1914: a study in the cultural origins of the First World War’ (PhD thesis, Stanford, CA, 1968), p. 259.
9 Christian Jansen, ‘Die Militarisierung der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft im 19. Jahrhundert’, in idem, ed., Der Bürger als Soldat: Die Militarisierung europäischer Gesellschaften im langen 19. Jahrhundert: ein internationaler Vergleich (Essen, 2004), p. 9.
10 Judson, Pieter, Exclusive revolutionaries: liberal politics, social experience, and national identity in the Austrian empire, 1848–1914 (Ann Arbor, MI, 1996)Google Scholar; Boyer, John, Political radicalism in late Imperial Vienna: origins of the Christian Social movement, 1848–1897 (Chicago, IL, 1981)Google Scholar. On the transformations of liberal politics, see Janik, Allan, ‘Vienna 1900 revisited: paradigms and problems’, in Beller, Steven, ed., Rethinking Vienna, 1900 (New York, 2001), pp. 27–56Google Scholar.
11 Judson, Pieter, Guardians of the nation: activists on the language frontiers of Imperial Austria (Cambridge, MA, 2006)Google Scholar.
12 Laurence, Richard R., ‘Bertha von Suttner and the peace movement in Austria to World War I’, Austrian History Yearbook, 23 (1992), pp. 181–201CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 200.
13 Freiherr von Walterskirchen, Robert, Zur Abrüstungs-Frage (Vienna, 1880)Google Scholar. Cf. Charmatz, Richard, Adolf Fischhof (Stuttgart, 1910), p. 400Google Scholar.
14 Fischhof, Adolf, On the reduction of continental armies, trans. H. W. Freeland (London, 1875), p. 16Google Scholar.
15 ‘Adolf Fischhof †’, Die Waffen nieder!, 2 (1893), pp. 161–2.
16 Laurence, ‘The problem of peace’, p. 135. On Fischhof and Walterskirchen, see ibid., pp. 101–2.
17 Humphrey William Freeland in Fischhof, Reduction of continental armies, p. 4.
18 Preface by de Marcoartu, Arturo in Jahresbericht der Oesterreichischen Gesellschaft der Friedensfreunde für 1892 (Vienna, 1893), p. 14Google Scholar; Charmatz, Fischhof, pp. 417–8; Cooper, Patriotic pacifism, p. 49.
19 L'Association Internationale de l'arbitrage et de la Paix de la Grande Bretagne et de l'Irlande, Procès verbal de la conférence internationale tenue à Bruxelles, le 17, 18, 19, et 20 Octobre, 1882 (London, 1883), pp. viii and 216.
20 Okey, Robin, The Habsburg Monarchy, c. 1765–1918 (Basingstoke, 2001), p. 209Google Scholar.
21 Ibid., p. 210.
22 Hamann, Bertha von Suttner, pp. 158–9.
23 ‘Von den Delegationen’, Die Waffen nieder!, 4 (1895), p. 260.
24 Uhlig, Ralph, Die Interparlamentarische Union, 1889–1914 (Stuttgart, 1988)Google Scholar. On visions of the IPU as the nucleus of a world parliament, see Albers, William, ‘Between the crisis of democracy and world parliament: the Inter-Parliamentary Union in the 1920s’, Journal of Global History, 7 (2012), pp. 189–209CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
25 The numbers for Hungary were 197 out of 453 members of the Chamber of Representatives; for Imperial Germany, 67 out of 397 Reichstag deputies; for France, 343 out of 584 deputés; for Britain, 197 out of 670 MPs: Fried, Alfred, Handbuch der Friedensbewegung (2nd edn, 2 vols., Vienna, 1913), ii, p. 263Google Scholar.
26 van den Dungen, Peter, ‘The political engagement of Bertha von Suttner’, in Internationaler Bertha-von-Suttner-Verein, ed., Friede – Fortschritt – Frauen: Friedensnobelpreisträgerin Bertha von Suttner auf Schloss Harmannsdorf (Vienna, 2007), pp. 100–1Google Scholar; Ustor, Endro, ‘A Budapest peace congress in 1896’, New Hungarian Quarterly, 22 (1981), pp. 154–9Google Scholar.
27 ‘Nachklänge vom Friedens-Congress’, Die Waffen nieder!, 2 (1892), p. 5.
28 Mazower, Mark, Governing the world: the history of an idea (London, 2012), p. 83Google Scholar.
29 Wank, Solomon, ‘The Austrian peace movement and the Habsburg ruling elite, 1906–1914’, in Chatfield, Charles and van den Dungen, Peter, eds., Peace movements and political cultures (Knoxville, TX, 1988), p. 43Google Scholar.
30 von Plener, Ernst, Erinnerungen (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1921), iii, p. 334Google Scholar.
31 Plener to Fried, 14 Apr. 1911, Fried correspondence, box 74, in Fried-Suttner papers, League of Nations Archives, United Nations Library Geneva (henceforth FSP).
32 Lawrence, Richard R., ‘Ernst von Plener’, in Josephson, Harold, ed., Biographical dictionary of modern peace leaders (London, 1985), p. 758Google Scholar. Laurence (‘The problem of peace’, p. 239) speaks of the ‘chauvinistic, self-righteous tone’ of Plener and other members of his party.
33 Whiteside, Andrew, The socialism of fools: Georg Ritter von Schönerer and Austrian Pan-Germanism (London, 1975), p. 20Google Scholar. See also Höbelt, Lothar, ‘The Bosnian Crisis revisited: why did the Austrian liberals oppose Andrassy?’, in idem and Otte, T. G., eds., A living anachronism? European diplomacy and the Habsburg Monarchy (Vienna, 2010), pp. 179–98Google Scholar.
34 Speech on 7 Dec. 1888: von Plener, Ernst, Reden 1873–1911 (Stuttgart, 1913), pp. 459–67Google Scholar.
35 Plener, Erinnerungen, iii, p. 534.
36 Höbelt, Lother, Kornblume und Kaiseradler: Die deutschfreiheitlichen Parteien Altösterreichs, 1882–1918 (Munich, 1993), p. 21Google Scholar.
37 Godsey, William Jr, Aristocratic redoubt: the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Office on the eve of the First World War (West Lafayette, IN, 1999), p. 103Google Scholar.
38 Cooper, Patriotic pacifism, pp. 107 and 132.
39 Wank, ‘The Austrian peace movement and the Habsburg ruling elite’, p. 41. See Wank, , In the twilight of empire: Count Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal (1854–1912), Imperial Habsburg patriot and diplomat (Vienna, 2009)Google Scholar.
40 Lyons, F. S. L., Internationalism in Europe, 1815–1914 (Leiden, 1963), p. 353Google Scholar; Fritz Huber, ‘Heinrich Lammasch als Völkerrechtsgelehrter und Friedenspolitiker’ (D.Phil. thesis, Graz, 1968), pp. 101–5; Solomon Wank, ‘Diplomacy against the peace movement: the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Office and the Second Hague Peace Conference of 1907’, in idem, ed., Doves and diplomats: foreign offices and peace movements in Europe and America in the twentieth century (Westport, CT, 1978), pp. 55–83.
41 Chickering, Imperial Germany, p. 252.
42 Lammasch to Fried, 28 Oct., 7 and 15 Nov. 1910, in Fried correspondence, box 73, FSP.
43 ‘Die Lammasch-Feier in Wien’, Die Friedens-Warte, 12 (1910), pp. 223–7.
44 Fried to Lammasch, 21 Feb. 1914, in Fried correspondence, box 67, FSP.
45 Laurence, Richard, ‘The peace movement in Austria, 1867–1914’, in Wank, , ed., Doves and diplomats, p. 31Google Scholar.
46 Katscher, Leopold, Bertha von Suttner, die ‘Schwärmerin’ für Güte (Dresden, 1903)Google Scholar; Fried, Alfred, Bertha von Suttner (Gautzsch, 1908)Google Scholar. The main posthumous studies are Hamann, Bertha von Suttner, and Kempf, Beatrix, Bertha von Suttner: das Lebensbild einer großen Frau: Schrifstellerin, Politikerin, Journalistin (Vienna, 1964)Google Scholar.
47 Kovács, Henriett, Die Friedensbewegung in Österreich-Ungarn an der Wende zum 20. Jahrhundert (Herne, 2009), pp. 104–5Google Scholar.
48 Norman Angell, ‘Preface’, in Fried, Alfred, The German emperor and the peace of the world (London, 1912)Google Scholar, p. x. On Angell, see Ceadel, Martin, Living the great illusion: Sir Norman Angell, 1857–1967 (Oxford, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
49 von Suttner, Bertha, Lebenserinnerungen (Berlin 1968), p. 255Google Scholar (orig. 1909).
50 Alfred Fürst Wrede, ‘Jahresbericht’, in Jahresbericht, p. 15. In contrast, Kovács speaks of 577 members by late 1893: Kovács, Die Friedensbewegung in Österreich-Ungarn, p. 77. On membership numbers, see also Hamann, Bertha von Suttner, p. 185.
51 Fried, Alfred, Handbuch der Friedensbewegung (Leipzig, 1905)Google Scholar, unpaginated section ‘Die Friedensbewegung und ihre Organe’.
52 Ibid., p. 276.
53 Laity, Paul, The British peace movement, 1870–1914 (Oxford, 2001), p. 114Google Scholar; Chickering, Imperial Germany, p. 53.
54 ‘Zahlungsausweis’, in ÖFG, Jahresbericht, pp. 31–7.
55 Bruckmüller, Ernst, Sozialgeschichte Österreichs (Vienna, 1985), p. 427Google Scholar; Okey, Habsburg Monarchy, p. 134–5. Okey has described ‘bourgeois liberals’ as a ‘largely bookish community’ (ibid., p. 207).
56 Josef Bauer, ‘Die Österreichische Friedensbewegung’ (D.Phil. thesis, Vienna, 1949), p. 99.
57 von Suttner, Bertha, ‘Der nächste Friedenskongreß in Rom’, Neue Freie Presse, 3 Sept. 1891Google Scholar.
58 Freimaurer-Loge Eötvǒs to Fried, 20 May 1912, in Fried correspondence, box 49, FSP. On Fried and freemasonry, see Schönemann-Behrens, Alfred H. Fried, p. 190.
59 ‘Oesterreichische Friedensgesellschaft’, Die Friedens-Warte, 12 (1910), p. 60.
60 ‘Zur Gründung des Wiener Akademischen Friedensvereins’, Die Waffen nieder!, 1 (1892), p. 15.
61 Katscher, Leopold, Friedensstimmen: Eine Anthologie (Leipzig, 1894), p. 8Google Scholar.
62 Müller, Arthur, Pacifistisches Jugendbuch: ein Ratgeber für Eltern und Erzieher (Vienna, 1911)Google Scholar.
63 Fried to Henri La Fontaine, 23 Apr. 1913, Correspondence Henri La Fontaine, HLF 64, Mundaneum, Mons. On Fried and his co-operation with La Fontaine, see Laqua, Daniel, ‘Alfred H. Fried and the challenges for “scientific pacifism” in the belle époque’, in Rayward, Boyd, ed., Information beyond borders: international cultural and intellectual exchange in the belle époque (New York, NY, 2014), pp. 181–99Google Scholar.
64 Fried to Arthur Müller, 12 Nov. 1902, Fried correspondence, box 39, FSP.
65 Bloch, Jan, Is war now impossible? Being an abridgment of ‘The war of the future in its technical, economic and political relations’ (London, 1899)Google Scholar; Angell, Norman, The great illusion: a study of the relation of military power in nations to their economic and social advantage (London, 1911)Google Scholar; Novikov, Yakov, War and its alleged benefits: with an introduction by Norman Angell (London, 1912)Google Scholar.
66 Kobatsch, Rudolf, Die volks- und staatswirtschaftliche Bilanz der Rüstungen: nach einem Vortrag gehalten am 10. Februar 1911 (Vienna, 1911)Google Scholar.
67 Goldscheid, Rudolf, Friedensbewegung und Menschenökonomie (Berlin, 1912), p. 43Google Scholar.
68 Leitsch-Prost, Edith, ‘Rosa Mayreder’, in de Haan, Francisca, Daskalova, Krassimira, and Loutfi, Anna, eds., Biographical dictionary of women's movements and feminisms in central, eastern and southern Europe: nineteenth and twentieth centuries (Budapest, 2006), pp. 319–21Google Scholar.
69 Olga Misař to Alfred Fried, 14 Oct. 1912, Fried correspondence, box 69, FSP.
70 Bader-Zaar, Brigitte, ‘Women in Austrian politics, 1890–1934: goals and visions’, in Good, David, Grandner, Margarete, and Maynes, Mary Jo, eds., Austrian women in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries: cross-disciplinary perspectives (Providence, RI, 1996), p. 60Google Scholar.
71 Bader-Zaar, ‘Women in Austrian politics’, p. 64, referring to an article in the Neues Wiener Tagblatt, 23 Mar. 1889. On Fickert's association, see Evans, Richard, The feminists: women's emancipation movements in Europe, America and Australasia, 1840–1920 (London, 1977), p. 95Google Scholar.
72 After the Great War, Zipernowsky combined feminism and pacifism by leading the Austrian section of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom: Vermes, Gabor, ‘Anna Zipernowksy’, in Josephson, , ed., Biographical dictionary of modern peace leaders, p. 1051Google Scholar.
73 Bertha von Suttner, Die Waffen nieder! Ausgewählte Texte, ed. Klaus Mannhardt and Winfried Schwamborn (2nd edn, Cologne, 1982), p. 123 (orig. 1911).
74 Berghahn, Volker, Militarism: the history of an international debate, 1861–1979 (Leamington Spa, 1981)Google Scholar; Wette, Wolfram, ed., Militarismus in Deutschland 1871 bis 1945: zeitgenössische Analysen und Kritik (Münster, 1999)Google Scholar.
75 Rothenberg, Gunther, The army of Francis Joseph (West Lafayette, IN, 1976), p. 221Google Scholar.
76 Laurence, ‘The problem of peace’, p. 80. The adjective ‘militaristic’ features in Laurence's study, yet he avoids ‘militarism’ as a conceptual framework.
77 Rothenberg, The army of Francis Joseph, p. 160.
78 This frequently used term features, inter alia, in Allmayer-Beck, Johann Christoph, ‘Die bewaffnete Macht in Staat und Gesellschaft’, in Wandruszka, Adam and Urbanitsch, Peter, eds., Die Habsburgermonarchie 1848–1918, v (Vienna, 1987), p. 95Google Scholar. On the army's supranational character, see Deák's, IstvánBeyond nationalism: a social and political history of the Habsburg officer corps, 1848–1918 (Oxford, 1990)Google Scholar. Its role in sustaining Habsburg patriotism is also noted in Kirchhoff, Jörg, Die Deutschen in der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie: ihr Verhältnis zum Staat, zur deutschen Nation und ihr kollektives Selbstverständnis (1866/67–1918) (Berlin, 2001), p. 149Google Scholar.
79 Förster, Stig, Der doppelte Militarismus: Die deutsche Heeresrüstungspolitik zwischen Status-Quo-Sicherung und Aggression 1890–1913 (Stuttgart, 1985), pp. 7–8Google Scholar.
80 Allmayer-Beck, ‘Die bewaffnete Macht’, p. 66.
81 Adler, Moritz, Der Krieg, die Congressidee und die allgemeine Wehrpflicht – im Lichte der Aufklärung und Humanität unserer Zeit (Prague, 1868), p. 91Google Scholar.
82 Stekel, Moritz, ‘Am Abgrund und schlafend: Ein Situationsbild aus der Bukowina’, Die Waffen Nieder!, 1 (1892), p. 12Google Scholar.
83 von Suttner, Bertha, ‘Randglossen zur Zeitgeschichte’, Die Friedens-Warte, 12 (1910), p. 208Google Scholar.
84 Lackey, Scott, The rebirth of the Habsburg army (Westport, CT, 1995), p. 156Google Scholar.
85 Ibid., p. 161.
86 Deák, Beyond nationalism, p. 6.
87 Howard, Michael, War in European history (Oxford, 1976), p. 109Google Scholar. See the definition of militarism as ‘a political and social order which is predominantly characterized by military interest and martial pattern of thinking’: Wolfram Wette, ‘Für eine Belebung der Militarismusforschung’, in Militarismus in Deutschland, p. 13.
88 Dülffer, Jost and Holl, Karl, eds., Bereit zum Krieg: Kriegsmentalität im Wilhelminischen Deutschland, 1890–1914: Beiträge zur historischen Friedensforschung (Göttingen, 1986)Google Scholar. Cf. Chickering, Imperial Germany, p. 37.
89 Bruckmüller, Sozialgeschichte Österreichs, p. 448.
90 Laurence Cole, ‘Military veterans and popular patriotism in Imperial Austria, 1870–1914’, in idem and Daniel Unowsky, eds., The limits of loyalty: imperial symbolism, popular allegiances and state patriotism in the late Habsburg Monarchy (New York, NY, 2007), p. 37. See also Urbanitsch, Peter, ‘Pluralist myth and nationalist realities: the dynastic myth of the Habsburg Monarchy – a futile exercise in the creation of identity?’, Austrian History Yearbook, 35 (2004), pp. 101–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar. I have borrowed the term ‘folkloristic militarism’ from Vogel, Jakob, Nationen im Gleichschritt: Die Kultur der ‘Nation in Waffen’ in Deutschland und Frankreich, 1871–1914 (Göttingen, 1997), pp. 18–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar and 275–8.
91 Unowsky, Daniel, ‘Staging Habsburg patriotism: dynastic loyalty and the 1898 Imperial Jubilee’, in Judson, Pieter and Rozenblit, Marsha, eds., Constructing nationalities in east central Europe (New York, NY, 2005), p. 147Google Scholar; Unowsky, Daniel, The pomp and politics of patriotism: imperial celebrations in Habsburg Austria, 1848–1916 (West Lafayette, IN, 2005), pp. 97–8Google Scholar.
92 von Suttner, Bertha, Lay down your arms: the autobiography of Martha von Tilling, trans. T. Holmes (rev. edn, New York, NY, 1908), p. 149Google Scholar.
93 Best, Geoffrey, ‘The militarisation of European society, 1873–1914’, in Gillis, John, ed., The militarisation of the western world (London, 1989), p. 15Google Scholar.
94 Adler, Der Krieg, die Congressidee, p. 56. On Adler's critique, see also Christa Hämmerle, ‘Die k. (u.) k. Armee “Schule des Volkes”? Zur Geschichte der Allgemeinen Wehrpflicht in der multinationen Habsburgermonarchie (1866–1914/18)’, in Jansen, ed., Der Bürger als Soldat, esp. pp. 186–98.
95 Déak, Beyond nationalism, p. 7.
96 Cole, ‘Military veterans’, p. 40; Laurence Cole, Christa Hämmerle and Martin Scheutz, ‘Glanz – Gewalt – Gehorsam: Tradition und Pespektiven der Militärgeschichtsschreibung zur Habsburgermonarchie’, in idem, eds., Glanz – Gewalt – Gehortsam: Militär und Gesellschaft in der Habsburgermonarchie (1800 bis 1918) (Essen, 2011), pp. 13–28.
97 Kreuzig, Anton, Kronawetter, Ferdinand, and von Pirquet, Peter, Zur Reform der Militär-Justiz (Vienna, 1889)Google Scholar.
98 Note in Die Waffen nieder!, 3 (1894), p. 58.
99 Suttner, Die Waffen nieder! Ausgewählte Texte, p. 120 (orig. 1912).
100 Arthur Müller to Fried, 4 Nov. 1902, Fried correspondence, box 39, FSP.
101 ‘Wiener akademischer Friedensverein’, Die Waffen nieder!, 2 (1893), p. 73.
102 Oswald Richter to Suttner, 26 Oct. 1906, Suttner correspondence, box 26, FSP.
103 Note in Die Friedens-Warte, 11 (1909), p. 63.
104 ‘Protest gegen die austro-italienische Kriegshetze’, Die Friedens-Warte, 11 (1909) pp. 132–3.
105 Wrede, ‘Jahresbericht’, p. 15. Fried suggested that fifty-two out of ninety-eight major Austrian newspapers were ‘sympathetic to the peace movement’: Laurence, ‘The problem of peace’, p. 349.
106 Statuten des Vereines Oesterreichische Gesellschaft der Friedensfreunde (Vienna, 1893). The de facto student branch of the association represented similar views: Laurence, ‘The problem of peace’, p. 341.
107 Fried, Handbuch (1913 edn), i, p. 89.
108 ‘Tolstojaner in der österreichischen Armee’, Die Waffen nieder!, 4 (1895), pp. 337–8.
109 ‘Von den Delegationen’, Die Friedens-Warte, 12 (1910), p. 202.
110 ‘Mitteilungen der Oesterreichischen Friedensgesellschaft’, Die Friedens-Warte, 12 (1910), p. 59.
111 ‘Mitteilungen der Oesterreichischen Friedensgesellschaft’, Die Friedens-Warte, 11 (1909), p. 39.
112 Fried, Handbuch (1913 edn), ii, pp. 192 and 195. See also Cooper, Patriotic pacifism, pp. 170–1.
113 Fried, Der Kaiser und der Weltfrieden (Berlin, 1910).
114 ‘Oesterreichische Friedensgesellschaft’, Tages-Post, 2 Apr. 1913.
115 Suttner, Lebenserinnungen, pp. 542, 545, and 553.
116 Wilhelm Liebknecht, letter of 2 May 1892 as quoted in ibid., p. 19.
117 Suttner, Die Waffen nieder! Ausgewählte Texte, pp. 95–9 (orig. 1893).
118 Fried to August Bebel, 28 Apr. 1897, in Fried correspondence, box 33, FSP.
119 Suttner, Die Waffen nieder! Ausgewählte Texte, p. 99 (orig. 1907).
120 ‘Die österreichische Sozialdemokratie gegen die Politik Aehrenthals’, Die Friedens-Warte, 11 (1909), p. 197.
121 Liebknecht, Karl, ‘Rede in Budapest, 17. Nov. 1912’, Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft, 9 (1961), p. 437Google Scholar. Cf. idem, Militarism and anti-militarism (New York, NY, 1972), p. 1 (orig. 1912).
122 Allmayer-Beck, ‘Die bewaffnete Macht’, p. 119; Stargardt, Nicholas, The German idea of militarism: radical and socialist critics, 1866–1914 (Cambridge, 1994)Google Scholar.
123 Okey, Habsburg Monarchy, p. 343.
124 Havránek, Jan, ‘Der tschechische Pazifismus und Antimilitarismus am Vorabend des Ersten Weltkrieges’, in Heiss, Gernot and Lutz, Heinrich, eds., Friedensbewegungen: Bedingungen und Wirkungen (Munich, 1984), pp. 132–4Google Scholar.
125 Laurence, ‘The problem of peace’, pp. 290–3.
126 Walterskirchen, Abrüstungs-Frage, pp. 6–7.
127 Suttner, , ‘Unsere Plattform’, Die Waffen nieder!, 1 (1892), p. 48Google Scholar.
128 Bonn, M. J., ‘Die Sozialdemokratie und die Friedensvereine’, Die Waffen nieder!, 2 (1893), pp. 169–72Google Scholar.
129 Leaflet ‘Was wollen die Friedensgesellschaften?’, in ‘Miss-AHF: Materials, Newspaper Cuttings, 1897–1914’, Fried correspondence, box 14, FSP.
130 Gilman, Nicholas and Katscher, Leopold, Der Arbeitsfriede (Gautzsch, 1908), p. 11Google Scholar.
131 ‘Die Friedensaction des Czaren’, Die Waffen nieder!, 7 (1898), p. 379. See also Suttner, Lebenserinnerungen, pp. 412–14.
132 Chickering, Imperial Germany, p. 398.
133 Allmayer-Beck, ‘Die bewaffnete Macht’, p. 121.
134 Fried to Eduard Bernstein, 31 Dec. 1912, in Fried correspondence, box 49, FSP.
135 Fried to Bernstein, 23 Jan. 1912, ibid. See Bernstein, Eduard, ‘Wie man Kriegsstimmung erzeugt’, Friedens-Warte, 14 (1912), pp. 2–7Google Scholar.
136 Fried to Goldscheid, Jan. 1913, in Fried correspondence, box 60, FSP. See also Schönemann-Behrens, Alfred H. Fried, pp. 192–3.
137 Goldscheid, Friedensbewegung und Menschenökonomie, p. 9.
138 Goldscheid, Rudolf, Das Verhältnis der äußeren Politik zur inneren: Ein Beitrag zur Soziologie des Weltkrieges und Weltfriedens (Vienna, 1914), pp. 16–17Google Scholar.
139 Ibid., p. 24.
140 Ibid., p. 55.
141 Höbelt, Lothar, ‘Well-tempered discontent: Austrian domestic politics’, in Cornwall, Mark, ed., The last years of Austria-Hungary: a multi-national experiment in early twentieth-century Europe (rev. edn, Exeter, 2010), p. 49Google Scholar.
142 §2, ‘Grundidee’, in Statuten der Österreichischen Friedensgesellschaft (früher ‘Österreichische Gesellschaft der Friedensfreunde’, c. 1912, in folder ‘ÖFG’, Fried correspondence, box 73, FSP.
143 von Suttner, Bertha, ‘Randglossen zur Zeitgeschichte’, Die Friedens-Warte, 11 (1909), p. 30Google Scholar.
144 Fried, Handbuch (1905 edn), p. 35.
145 Fried, Alfred, Kurze Aufklärungen über Wesen und Ziel des Pazifismus (Berlin, 1914), p. 20Google Scholar.
146 Passy's rebuttal is quoted in Wrede, ‘Jahresbericht’, p. 18. See also Suttner, Lebenserinnerungen, p. 298.
147 Suttner, ‘Unsere Plattform’, Die Waffen nieder!, 1 (1892), p. 5.
148 Schorske, Carl, Fin-de-siècle Vienna: politics and culture (New York, NY, 1980)Google Scholar; Hanák, Péter, The garden and the workshop: essays in culture and the history of Vienna and Budapest (London, 1998)Google Scholar.
149 ‘5. Interparlamentarische Konferenz’, Die Waffen nieder!, 4 (1895), p. 287.
150 Plöhn, Robert, ‘International und Antinational’, Die Waffen nieder!, 2 (1893), pp. 465–8Google Scholar.
151 Goldscheid, Friedensbewegung und Menschenökonomie, p. 57.
152 Fried, Kurze Aufklärungen, p. 21.
153 Judson, Exclusive revolutionaries, pp. 249–51.
154 Kovács, Die Friedensbewegung in Österreich-Ungarn, p. 109.
155 Kann, Robert, The multinational empire (2 vols., New York, NY, 1950), ii, pp. 143–8Google Scholar. See also Walz, Stefan, Staat, Nationalität und jüdische Identität vom 18. Jahrhundert bis 1914 (Frankfurt, 1996), pp. 186–96Google Scholar.
156 Türr, General, ‘Geehrter Herr Redacteur!’, Die Waffen nieder!, 7 (1898), p. 402Google Scholar.
157 ‘Zeitschau’, Die Waffen nieder!, 8 (1899), p. 3.
158 Adler, Moritz, ‘Die allgemeine Wehrpflicht und die Nationalität, Die Waffen nieder!, 1 (1894), p. 237Google Scholar.
159 Rudolf Jenny to Suttner, 24 Nov. 1895, Suttner correspondence, box 21, FSP.
160 Suttner, , ‘Mein Aufenthalt in Prag’, Die Waffen nieder!, 4 (1895), p. 427Google Scholar.
161 Suttner, Lebenserinnerungen, p. 531.
162 Fried, , ‘Der Slaventag zu Prag’ (1898), in Fried, , Unter der weißen Fahne: aus der Mappe eines Friedensjournalisten (Berlin, 1901), p. 130Google Scholar.
163 Ibid., p. 131.
164 Ibid., p. 134. This was a reference to Theodor Mommsen's letter ‘An die Deutschen in Österreich’, published by the Neue Freie Presse, 31 Oct. 1897.
165 Alexandr Batěk to Fried, 23 May 1907 and 29 Nov. 1908, Fried correspondence, box 48, FSP.
166 Hermann Bahr to Suttner, 7 Feb. and 11 Feb. 1909, Suttner correspondence, box 13, FSP. See also Hamann, Bertha von Suttner, pp. 473–4.
167 ‘Oesterreichische Friedensgesellschaft’, Die Friedens-Warte, 11 (1909), p. 95.
168 ‘Von den Delegationen’, Die Friedens-Warte, 12 (1910), p. 204 – Fried mentions this in his Handbuch (1913 edn), ii, p. 217.
169 Leaflet in box 47, Fried correspondence, FSP.
170 Glettler, Monika, Die Wiener Tschechen um 1900 (Munich, 1972), pp. 265–6Google Scholar.
171 Alfred Rossmanith to Fried, 12 May 1913, Fried correspondence, box 79, FSP.
172 Beller, Steven, Vienna and the Jews, 1867–1938: a cultural history (Cambridge, 1989), p. 188Google Scholar.
173 Ibid., p. 195.
174 Walz, Staat, Nationalität und jüdische Identität, p. 186. Cf. Boyer, Political radicalism, pp. 209–10.
175 Ibid., p. 361.
176 Arthur Gundaccar v. Suttner, ‘Zur Situation der Gegenwart’, reprinted in Suttner, Lebenserinnungen, p. 340.
177 Kowalek, Emerich, ‘Kritik des “gebildeten” Antisemitismus in seinem Verhältnisse zur Friedensidee’, Die Waffen nieder!, 3 (1893), pp. 60–5Google Scholar and 103–8.
178 Suttner, Lebenserinnerungen, p. 431; also Die Waffen nieder!, 5 (1896), p. 291 and Hamann, Bertha von Suttner, pp. 212–13.
179 ‘F/S Materials 1892–1914, Misc. AHF: Materials, Newspaper Cuttings, 1897–1914’, box 14, FSP.
180 Levenson, Alan, ‘Theodor Herzl and Bertha von Suttner: criticism, collaboration and utopianism’, Journal of Israeli History, 15 (1994), pp. 213–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
181 Ibid., pp. 91 and 163.
182 Stefan Zweig, The world of yesterday (London, 1943), p. 5.
183 Beller, Vienna and the Jews, p. 180.
184 Pieter Judson, ‘Rethinking the liberal legacy’, in Beller, Rethinking Vienna, 1900, p. 74.
185 Suttner, Lebenserinnerungen, p. 550.
186 Alfred Fried to Henri La Fontaine, 29 July 1914, in box 66, records of the International Peace Bureau, League of Nations Archives, United Nations Library.
187 ÖFG board meeting, 7 Aug. 1914, Fried correspondence, box 73, FSP.
188 That said, Fried subsequently moved to Switzerland to continue his journalistic activities.
