¹ For more information on desegregation cases in the North before Brown see Davison M. Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North: The Battle over Northern School Segregation, 1865–1954 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).Google Scholar

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³ Title IV of the Civil Rights Act (1964) called for surveying school districts and providing funding and technical assistance to help districts desegregate. Furthermore, Title IV allowed the Justice Department to file school desegregation suits. Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act stipulated that programs or activities receiving federal funding could not discriminate against individuals based on race, color, or national origin. HEW was responsible for cutting federal funds and making sure there was compliance. Civil Rights Act (1964), Public Law 88–352; Orfield, Must We Bus, 279; Hasan Kwame Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes: Civil Rights and Black Power in Alabama's Black Belt (New York: New York University Press, 2009), 87.Google Scholar

⁴ See Kirby, David J., Harris, T. Robert, Crain, Robert L., and Rossell, Christine H., Political Strategies in Northern School Desegregation (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1973), 8; Combs, Michael W., “The Federal Judiciary and Northern School Desegregation,” Journal of Law and Education 13 (July 1984): 345-99; Dentler, Robert A., “Barriers to Northern School Desegregation,” 1966, ERIC ED 012 729; Orfield, Must We Bus; A Report of the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Fulfilling the Letter and Spirit of the Law: Desegregation of The Nation's Public Schools (Washington, DC: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1976); Taylor, Steven, J.L., Desegregation in Boston and Buffalo: The Influence of Local Leaders (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), 3–4.Google Scholar

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¹⁰ Center for National Policy Review, Justice Delayed and Denied, HEW and Northern School Desegregation (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America School of Law, 1974), 3–4.Google Scholar

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¹² Ibid., 10–15, 34; Davies, Gareth, See Government Grow: Education Politics from Johnson to Reagan (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2007), 108–20.Google Scholar

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¹⁴ See Douglas, , Jim Crow Moves North. Google Scholar

¹⁵ Center for National Policy Review, Justice Delayed and Denied, 15–17; Combs, “The Federal Judiciary and Northern School Desegregation,” 345–99; Orfield, Must We Bus, 11–39.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Taylor v. Baord of Education, 191 F. Supp. 181 (1961); Anderson and Pickering, Confronting the Color Line, 80.Google Scholar

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¹⁸ Bell, v. School City of Gary, Indiana 234 F 2d 209 (1963); Reynolds, “The Challenge of Racial Equality,” 180–82.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Combs, , “The Federal Judiciary and Northern School Desegregation,” 349.Google Scholar

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²¹ Orfield, Must We Bus, 12–36; Combs, “The Federal Judiciary and Northern School Desegregation,” 345–51. For a good book on how contemporary litigation assesses intent, see Mica Pollock, Because of Race: How Americans Debate Harm and Opportunity in Our Schools (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008).Google Scholar

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