1. Gove, Aaron, “The Trail of the City Superintendent,” NEA Addresses and Proceedings (1900), p. 215. In many ways the most useful general study remains Curti, Merle, The Social Ideas of American Educators (Paterson, N.J., 1959). An insightful book from the same period is Newlon, Jesse, Educational Administration as Social Policy (New York, 1934), a work which summarizes many studies of superintendents and treats the impact of business ideology. Raymond Callahan has carefully dissected the application of scientific management to education in Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago, 1962) and has extended that analysis to other periods in The Superintendent of Schools: An Historical Analysis (Bethesda, Md., 1967). Two studies give detailed information on the evolution of administrative duties of superintendents: Reller, Theodore Lee, The Development of the City Superintendency of Schools in the United States (Philadelphia, 1935), and Gilland, Thomas M., The Origins and Development of the Powers and Duties of the City-School Superintendent (Chicago, 1935). Among the more useful analyses of individual superintendents are McManis, John T., Ella Flagg Young and a Half-Century of the Chicago Public Schools (Chicago, 1916), and Berrol, Selma C., “William Henry Maxwell and a New Educational New York,” History of Education Quarterly, 8 (Summer 1968): 215–28. Although it does not focus only on superintendents, Mattingly, Paul, The Classless Profession: American Schoolmen in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1975) provides an excellent interpretation of the religious and other sources of ideology; it provides an interdisciplinary analysis of the early stages of professionalization by concentrating on the American Institute of Instruction. Cuban, Larry, “Schools Chiefs under Fire: A Study of Three Big-City Superintendents under Outside Pressure,” unpub. Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1974, places the changes in school administration during the last twenty years in illuminating historical perspective: Cuban's study is scheduled for publication by the University of Chicago Press. For other studies, including dissertations, that deal with the superintendency, see the bibliography of my The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge, 1974). In my conceptualization of the changes in the twentieth century I am indebted to Hays, Samuel, “The New Organizational Society,” in Israel, Jerry, ed. Building the Organizational Society: Essays on Associational Activities in Modern America (New York, 1972).Google Scholar

2. NEA, Department of Superintendence, Educational Leadership: Programs and Possibilities (11th Yearbook, Washington, D.C., 1933), 246.Google Scholar

3. A sample of historical studies of occupational groups includes Lubove, Roy, The Professional Altruist: The Emergence of Social Work as a Career (Cambridge, Mass., 1965); Merwick, Donna, Boston Priests, 1848–1910: A Study of Social and Intellectual Change (Cambridge, Mass., 1973); Calhoun, Daniel, The American Civil Engineer: Origins and Conflicts (Cambridge, Mass., 1960); Rothstein, William G., American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1972); Hobson, Wayne K., “Lawyers in the Progressive Era,” dissertation in progress, Stanford University. Some studies in the sociological literature about work and occupations are cited below in notes 25 and 26.Google Scholar

4. In my conception of Victorian culture in America, I have been much influenced by Howe, Daniel Walker, “American Victorianism as a Culture,” American Quarterly, 27 (Dec. 1975): 507–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

5. Gove, , “Trail of the City Superintendent,” p. 215; Bair, Frederick Haigh, The Social Understandings of the Superintendent of Schools (New York, 1934), pp. 156–60; Bunyan, John, The Pilgrim's Progress (Harmondsworth, 1965). The following biographies and autobiographies of administrators are samples of a large literature: Abelow, Samuel P., Dr. William H. Maxwell, the First Superintendent of Schools of the City of New York (Brooklyn, 1934); Berrol, , “Maxwell”; Burrin, Frank K., Edward Charles Elliott, Educator (Lafayette, Ind., 1970); Detroit Public School Staff, Frank Cody: A Realist in Education (New York, 1943); Gatewood, Willard B. Jr., Eugene Clyde Brooks: Educator and Public Servant (Durham, N.C., 1960); Jaeckel, Solomon P., “Edward Hyatt, 1858–1919: California Educator,” Southern California Quarterly, 52 (Mar., June, Sept. 1970): 33–5, 122–54, 248–74; Parker, Francis Wayland, “An Autobiographical Sketch,” in Giffin, William M., School Days in the Fifties (Chicago, n.d.); Phillips, Claude Anderson, Fifty Years of Public School Teaching: From Rural School Teacher to University Professor (Columbia, Mo., n.d.); Sears, Jesse B. and Henderson, Adin D., Cubberley of Stanford and His Contribution to American Education (Stanford, Ca., 1957); Sheldon, Edward Austin, Autobiography , ed. Barnes, Mary Sheldon (New York, 1911); Snedden, David, Recollections of Over Half a Century Spent in Educational Work (Palo Alto, Ca., 1949); Spaulding, Frank E., School Superintendent in Action in Five Cities (Rindge, N.H, 1955); Swett, John, Public Education in California: Its Origin and Development, with Personal Reminiscences of Half A Century (New York, 1911): Templeton, Joseph Crittenden, Chronicles of a Pedagogue (Sebastopol, Ca., 1948); Tracy, Lester L. Jr., Life and Educational Contributions of Joseph D. Elliff (University of Missouri Press, 1953); Whitney, Frank P., School and I: The Autobiography of an Ohio Schoolmaster (Yellow Spring, Ohio, 1957); also see bibliography by Warren Button in Cordasco, Francisco and Brickmen, William W., eds., A Bibliography of American Educational History (New York, 1975), pp. 228–248.Google Scholar

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