Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-qlrfm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-09T17:41:59.810Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Digital Technologies and Traditional Cultural Expressions: A Positive Look at a Difficult Relationship

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 April 2010

Mira Burri
Affiliation:
World Trade Institute, University of Bern

Abstract

Digital technologies have often been perceived as imperilling traditional cultural expressions (TCE). This angst has interlinked technical and sociocultural dimensions. On the technical side, it is related to the affordances of digital media that allow instantaneous access to information without real location constraints, data transport at the speed of light and effortless reproduction of the original without any loss of quality. In a sociocultural context, digital technologies have been regarded as the epitome of globalization forces—not only driving and deepening the process of globalization itself but also spreading its effects. The present article examines the validity of these claims and sketches a number of ways in which digital technologies may act as benevolent factors. It illustrates in particular that some digital technologies can be instrumentalized to protect TCE forms, reflecting more appropriately the specificities of TCE as a complex process of creation of identity and culture. The article also seeks to reveal that digital technologies—and more specifically the Internet and the World Wide Web—have had a profound impact on the ways cultural content is created, disseminated, accessed and consumed. It is argued that this environment may have generated various opportunities for better accommodating TCE, especially in their dynamic sense of human creativity.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © International Cultural Property Society 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

“Aboriginal Archive Offers New DRM,”, BBC News. October 22, 2008.Google Scholar
Anderson, Chris. The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business Is Selling Less of More. New York: Hyperion, 2006.Google Scholar
Antons, Christoph, ed. Traditional Knowledge, Traditional Cultural Expressions and Intellectual Property Law in the Asia-Pacific Region, Alphen aan den Rijn, Netherlands: Kluwer Law International, 2009.Google Scholar
Benkler, Yochai. “Freedom in the Commons: Towards a Political Economy of Information.” Duke Law Review 52 (2003): 12451276.Google Scholar
Benkler, Yochai. The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Berners-Lee, Tim, et al. . Architecture of the World Wide Web, Vol. 1, W3C Recommendation. ⟨http://www.w3.org/TR/webarch/⟩ (December 15, 2004) accessed September 1, 2009.Google Scholar
Boyle, James. Shamans, Software, and Spleens: Law and the Construction of the Information Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bracha, Oren, and Pasquale, Frank. “Federal Search Commission? Access, Fairness, and Accountability in the Law of Search.” Cornell Law Review 93 (2008): 11491209.Google Scholar
Brown, Michael F.Can Culture Be Copyrighted?Current Anthropology 39, no. 2 (1998): 193206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Michael F.Who Owns Native Culture? Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Brown, Michael F. “Heritage as Property.” In Property in Question: Value Transformation in the Global Economy, edited by Verdery, Katherine and Humphrey, Caroline, 4968. Oxford, UK: Berg, 2004.Google Scholar
Brown, Michael F.Heritage Trouble: Recent Work on the Protection of Intangible Cultural Property.” International Journal of Cultural Property 12 (2005): 4061.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brownsword, Roger, ed. Regulating Technologies: Legal Futures, Regulatory Frames and Technological Fixes. Oxford, UK: Hart, 2008.Google Scholar
Brynjolfsson, Erik, Hu, Yu, and Simester, Duncan, “Goodbye Pareto Principle, Hello Long Tail: The Effect of Search Costs on the Concentration of Product Sales.” MIT Center for Digital Business Research Paper, 2007: 140.Google Scholar
Brynjolfsson, Erik, Hu, Yu, and Smith, Michael D.. “Consumer Surplus in the Digital Economy: Estimating the Value of Increased Product Variety at Online Booksellers.” Management Science 49, no. 11 (2003): 15801596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brynjolfsson, Erik, Hu, Yu, and Smith, Michael D.. “From Niches to Riches: The Anatomy of the Long Tail.” Sloan Management Review 47, no. 4 (2006): 6771.Google Scholar
Burri-Nenova, Mira. “The Long Tail of the Rainbow Serpent: New Technologies and the Protection and Promotion of Traditional Cultural Expressions.” In Intellectual Property and Traditional Cultural Expressions in a Digital Environment, edited by Graber, Christoph Beat and Burri-Nenova, Mira, 205236. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2008.Google Scholar
Burri-Nenova, Mira. “Trade v Culture in the Digital Environment: An Old Conflict in Need of a New Definition.” Journal of International Economic Law 12, no. 1 (2009): 1762.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burri-Nenova, Mira. “User Created Content in Virtual Worlds and Cultural Diversity.” In Governance of Digital Game Environments and Cultural Diversity, edited by Graber, Christoph Beat and Burri-Nenova, Mira, 74112. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2010.Google Scholar
Carpenter, Kristen A., Katyal, Sonia K., and Riley, Angela R.. “In Defense of Property.” Yale Law Journal 118 (2009): 10221125.Google Scholar
Chander, Anupam, and Sunder, Madhavi. “The Romance of the Public Domain.” California Law Review 92 (2004): 13311373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christen, Kimberly. “Tracking Properness: Repackaging Culture in a Remote Australian Town.” Cultural Anthropology 21, no. 3 (2006): 416446.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christen, Kimberly. “Access and Accountability: The Ecology of Information Sharing in the Digital Age.” Anthropology News 50, no. 4 (April 2009): 45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cobcroft, Rachel, ed. Building an Australasian Commons: Creative Commons Case Studies, 1, Creative Commons Clinic. Brisbane, Australia: Australian Research Council, Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, 2008. Also available at ⟨http://creativecommons.org.au/casestudiesvol1⟩ (2008) accessed September 1, 2009.Google Scholar
Cohen, Julie E.Pervasively Distributed Copyright Enforcement.” Georgetown Law Journal 95 (2006): 148.Google Scholar
Coleman, Elizabeth Burns. “The Disneyland of Cultural Rights to Intellectual Property: Anthropological and Philosophical Perspectives.” In Intellectual Property and Traditional Cultural Expressions in a Digital Environment, edited by Graber, Christoph Beat and Burri-Nenova, Mira, 4972. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2008.Google Scholar
Coombe, Rosemary J. “The Properties of Culture and the Possession of Identity: Postcolonial Struggle and the Legal Imagination.” In Borrowed Power: Essays on Cultural Appropriation, edited by Ziff, Bruce and Rai, Pratima V., 7496. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Coombe, Rosemary J. “Preserving Cultural Diversity Through the Preservation of Biological Diversity: Indigenous Peoples, Local Communities, and the Role of Digital Technologies.” In The Gender of Genetic Futures, edited by Miller, Fiona et al., 132160. Toronto, Canada: NNEWH Working Paper Series, 2000.Google Scholar
Coombe, Rosemary J. “Protecting Cultural Industries to Promote Cultural Diversity: Dilemma for International Policy-Making Posed by the Recognition of Traditional Knowledge.” In International Public Goods and Transfer of Technology Under a Globalized Property Regime, edited by Maskus, Keith E. and Reichman, Jerome H., 559614. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Coombe, Rosemary J., and Herman, Andrew. “Rhetorical Values: Property, Speech, and the Commons on the World Wide WebAnthropological Quarterly 77, no. 3 (2004): 559574.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coombe, Rosemary J., Schnoor, Steven, and Ahmed, Mohsen. “Bearing Cultural Distinction: Informational Capitalism and New Expectations for Intellectual Property.” UC Davis Law Review 40 (2007): 891917.Google Scholar
Cowen, Tyler. In Praise of Commercial Culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Cowen, Tyler. Creative Destruction: How Globalization Is Changing the World's Cultures. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, Susan P.Network Rules.” Law and Contemporary Problems 70, no. 2 (2007): 5190.Google Scholar
Daes, Erica-Irene. Discrimination against Indigenous Peoples: Study on the Protection of the Cultural and Intellectual Property of Indigenous Peoples (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/28). New York: United Nations Economic and Social Council, Commission on Human Rights, 1993.Google Scholar
Deibert, Ronald J., Palfrey, John G., Rohozinski, Rafal, and Zittrain, Jonathan. Access Denied: The Practice and Policy of Global Internet Filtering. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Dutfield, Graham. “Protecting and Revitalising Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Intellectual Property Rights and Community Knowledge Databases in India.” In Intellectual Property Aspects of Ethnobiology, Perspectives on Intellectual Property, 6, edited by Blakeney, Michael, 103122. London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1999.Google Scholar
Dutfield, Graham. “Promoting Local Innovation as a Development Strategy.” Innovations: Technology, Governance, Globalization 1, no. 3 (2006): 6777.Google Scholar
Elkin-Koren, Niva. “What Contracts Cannot Do: The Limits of Private Ordering in Facilitating a Creative Commons.” Fordham Law Review 74, no. 2 (2005): 375422.Google Scholar
Finger, J. Michael. “Introduction and Overview.” In Poor People's Knowledge: Promoting Intellectual Property in Developing Countries, edited by Finger, J. Michael and Schuler, Philip, 136. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, Brian F., and Hedge, Susan. “Traditional Cultural Expression and the Internet World.” In Traditional Knowledge, Traditional Cultural Expressions and Intellectual Property Law in the Asia-Pacific Region, edited by Antons, Christoph, 245272. Alphen aan den Rijn, Netherlands: Kluwer Law International, 2009.Google Scholar
Flew, Terry. New Media: An Introduction, 3rd ed.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Frankel, Susy. “Trademarks, Traditional Knowledge and Cultural Intellectual Property Rights.” In Trademark Law and Theory: A Handbook of Contemporary Research, edited Dinwoodie, Graeme B. and Janis, Mark D., 433463. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2007.Google Scholar
Gasser, Urs, and Ernst, Silke, From Shakespeare to DJ Danger Mouse: A Quick Look at Copyright and User Creativity in the Digital Age. Cambridge, MA: Berkman Center for Internet and Society Research Publication No. 05, 2006.Google Scholar
Gasser, Urs, and Palfrey, John, Breaking Down Digital Barriers. Berkman Publication Series. ⟨http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/interop/⟩ (November 2007) accessed September 1, 2009.Google Scholar
Germann, Christophe. “Culture in Times of Cholera: A Vision for a New Legal Framework Promoting Cultural DiversityERA—Forum 6, no. 1 (2005): 109130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graber, Christoph Beat, and Burri-Nenova, Mira, eds. Intellectual Property and Traditional Cultural Expressions in a Digital Environment, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gupta, Anil K.From Sink to Source: The Honey Bee Network Documents Indigenous Knowledge and Innovations in India.” Innovations: Technology, Governance, Globalization 1, no. 3 (2006): 4966.Google Scholar
Helfer, Laurence R.Regime Shifting: The TRIPs Agreement and New Dynamics of International Intellectual Property Lawmaking.” Yale Journal of International Law 29, no. 1 (2004): 183.Google Scholar
Horlings, Edwin, al, et. Contribution to Impact Assessment of the Revision of the Television Without Frontiers Directive. Cambridge, UK: RAND Europe, 2005.Google Scholar
Hunter, Jane, Koopman, Bevan, and Sledge, Jane. Software Tools for Indigenous Knowledge Management. ⟨http://www.archimuse.com/mw2003/papers/hunter/hunter.html⟩ (September 2002) accessed September 1, 2009.Google Scholar
International Study on the Impact of Copyright Law on Digital Preservation. A Joint Report of the Library of Congress National Digital Information Infrastructure, and Preservation Program, the Joint Information Systems Committee, the Open Access to Knowledge (OAK) Law Project and the SURFfoundation. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland University of Technology, 2008.Google Scholar
Janke, Terri. New Media Cultures: Protocols for Producing Indigenous Australian New Media. Report prepared for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Board of the Australia Council for the Arts.Sydney: Australia Council for the Arts, 2002.Google Scholar
Janke, Terri. Minding Culture: Case Studies on Intellectual Property and Traditional Cultural Expressions. Geneva: WIPO, 2003.Google Scholar
Jenkins, Henry. Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Kansa, Eric. Finding Common Ground in the Digital Commons. ⟨http://www.archive.icommons.org/articles/finding-common-ground-in-the-digital-commons⟩ (August 14, 2007) last accessed September 1, 2009.Google Scholar
Kansa, Eric. “Indigenous Heritage and the Digital Commons.” In Traditional Knowledge, Traditional Cultural Expressions and Intellectual Property Law in the Asia-Pacific Region, edited by Antons, Christoph, 219244. Alphen aan den Rijn, Netherlands: Kluwer Law International, 2009.Google Scholar
Kansa, Eric, and Kansa, Sarah Whitcher. “Open Context: Collaborative Data Publication to Bridge Field Research and Museum Collections.” In International Cultural Heritage Informatics Meeting (ICHIM07) Proceedings, edited by Trant, Jennifer and Bearman, David. Toronto, Canada: Archives and Museum Informatics, 2007. ⟨http://www.archimuse.com/ichim07/papers/kansa/kansa.html⟩.Google Scholar
Kansa, Eric C., Schultz, Jason, and Bissell, Ahrash N.. “Protecting Traditional Knowledge and Expanding Access to Scientific Data: Juxtaposing Intellectual Property Agendas via a ‘Some Rights Reserved’ Model.” International Journal of Cultural Property 12 (2005): 285314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keen, Andrew. The Cult of the Amateur: How Today's Internet Is Killing Our Culture. New York: Doubleday, 2007.Google Scholar
Kelty, Christopher M.Punt to Culture.” Anthropological Quarterly 77, no. 3 (2004): 547558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ku, Raymond Shih Ray. “The Creative Destruction of Copyright: Napster and the New Economics of Digital Technology.” University of Chicago Law Review 69, no. 1 (2002): 263324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurtz, Leslie A.Copyright and the Human Condition.” UC Davis Law Review 40 (2007): 12331252.Google Scholar
Lessig, Lawrence. Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity. New York: Penguin, 2004.Google Scholar
Lessig, Lawrence. “(Re)creativity: How Creativity Lives.” In Copyright and Other Fairy Tales: Hans Christian and the Commodification of Creativity, edited by Porsdam, Helle, 1522. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2006.Google Scholar
Liebl, Maureen, and Roy, Tirthanker. “Handmade in India: Traditional Craft Skills in a Changing World.” In Poor People's Knowledge: Promoting Intellectual Property in Developing Countries, edited by Finger, J. Michael and Schuler, Philip, 5374. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, and Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.Google Scholar
Maffi, L., and Skutnabb-Kangas, T.. “Linguistic Diversity and the ‘Curse of Babel.’” In Cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity (United Nations Environment Programme). London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 2000.Google Scholar
Marsden, Chris, al, et. Assessing Indirect Impacts of the EC Proposals for Video Regulation, Cambridge, UK: RAND Europe, 2006.Google Scholar
Mootz, Francis J. III. “After the Battle of the Forms: Commercial Contracting in the Electronic Age.” I/S A Journal of Law and Policy for the Information Society 4, no. 2 (2008): 271343.Google Scholar
Moringiello, Juliet M., and Reynolds, William L.. “Survey of the Law of Cyberspace: Electronic Contracting Cases 2007–2008.” Business Lawyer 64, no. 1 (2008): 199219.Google Scholar
Morphy, Howard. Aboriginal Art. London: Phaidon, 1998.Google Scholar
Mueller, Milton L.Digital Convergence and Its Consequences.” Javnost—The Public 6, no. 3 (1999): 1128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munzer, Stephen R., and Raustiala, Kal. “The Uneasy Case for Intellectual Property Rights in Traditional Knowledge.” Cardozo Arts and Entertainment Law Journal 27 (2009): 3797.Google Scholar
Musser, John, O'Reilly, with Tim. “Web 2.0: Principles and Best Practices.” O'Reilly Radar, 2006.Google Scholar
Naughton, John. “Our Changing Media Ecosystem.” In Communications: The Next Decade, edited by Richards, Ed et al., 4150. London: Ofcom, 2006.Google Scholar
Netanel, Neil W. “Why Has Copyright Expanded? Analysis and Critique.” In New Directions in Copyright Law, 6, edited by Macmillan, Fiona, 334. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2008.Google Scholar
Netherlands Council for Culture. From ICT to E-Culture: Advisory Report on the Digitalisation of Culture and the Implications for Cultural Policy. Submitted to the State Secretary for Education, Culture and Science, The Hague, the Netherlands: 2004.Google Scholar
New Zealand Ministry of Economic Development. Te Mana Taumara Mātauranga: Intellectual Property Guide for Māori Organizations and Communities. Wellington, NZ: New Zealand Ministry of Economic Development, 2007.Google Scholar
Nickerson, Marcia, and Kaufman, Jay. “Aboriginal Culture in the Digital Age.” Policy, Politics and Governance 10 (2005): 17.Google Scholar
OECD. Information Technology Outlook 2006. Paris: OECD, 2007.Google Scholar
OECD. Participative Web: User-Created Content. DSTI/ICCP/IE(2006)7/FINAL, 12 April 2007.Google Scholar
O'Regan, Tom, and Goldsmith, Ben. “Emerging Global Ecologies of Production.” In The New Media Book, edited by Harries, Dan, 92105. London: British Film Institute, 2008.Google Scholar
O'Reilly, Tim. “What Is Web 2.0? Design Patterns and Business Models for the Next Generation Software.” Communications and Strategies 65 (2007): 1737.Google Scholar
Pessach, Guy. “Digitization and Copyright Law: Taking Stock and Looking Ahead.” Journal of International Media and Entertainment Law 1, no. 2 (2007): 253282.Google Scholar
Pessach, Guy. “[Networked] Memory Institutions: Social Remembering, Privatization and its Discontents.” Cardozo Arts and Entertainment Law Journal 26, no. 1 (2008): 71149.Google Scholar
Pew Internet & American Life Project. Content Creation Online. February 29, 2004. ⟨http://www.pewinternet.org⟩.Google Scholar
Pew Internet & American Life Project. The Future of the Internet II. September 24, 2006.Google Scholar
Pew Internet & American Life Project. Tagging. January 2007.Google Scholar
Protocols for Producing Indigenous Australian Media Arts, 2nd ed.Sydney: Australia Council for the Arts. ⟨http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/⟩ (2007) accessed September 1, 2009.Google Scholar
Protocols for Producing Indigenous Australian Music, 2nd ed.Sydney: Australia Council for the Arts. ⟨http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/⟩ (2007) accessed September 1, 2009.Google Scholar
Protocols for Producing Indigenous Australian Performing Arts, 2nd ed.Sydney: Australia Council for the Arts. ⟨http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/⟩ (2007) accessed September 1, 2009.Google Scholar
Protocols for Producing Indigenous Australian Visual Arts, 2nd ed.Sydney: Australia Council for the Arts. ⟨http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/⟩ (2007) accessed September 1, 2009.Google Scholar
Protocols for Producing Indigenous Australian Writing, 2nd ed.Sydney: Australia Council for the Arts. ⟨http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/⟩ (2007) accessed September 1, 2009.Google Scholar
Reimsbach-Kounatze, Christian, and Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha. “Online Games and Virtual Worlds: Business and Policy Developments.” In Governance of Digital Game Environments and Cultural Diversity, edited by Graber, Christoph Beat and Burri-Nenova, Mira, 346. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2010.Google Scholar
Sahlfeld, Miriam. “How Does ICT Work for Development: A Review of the Challenges and Opportunities.” African Technology Development Forum 4, no. 1 (2007): 2236.Google Scholar
Sen, Amartya. Development as Freedom. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Shirky, Clay. Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations. London: Penguin, 2008.Google Scholar
Spar, Debora L.Ruling the Waves: From the Compass to the Internet, a History of Business and Politics Along the Technological Frontier. Orlando, FL: Harcourt, 2001.Google Scholar
Stumberger, Rudolf. “Der späte Sieg der Seminolen.” Neue Zürcher Zeitung (August 20, 2007).Google Scholar
Sunder, Madhavi. “Cultural Dissent.” Stanford Law Review 54 (2001): 495567.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunder, Madhavi. “IP3.” Stanford Law Review 59, no. 2 (2006): 257332.Google Scholar
Sunder, Madhavi. “The Invention of Traditional Knowledge.” Law and Contemporary Problems 70, no. 2 (2007): 97124.Google Scholar
Surowiecki, James. The Wisdom of Crowds: Why the Many Are Smarter Than the Few and How Collective Wisdom Shapes Business, Economies, and Nations. New York: Anchor, 2003.Google Scholar
UN Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. “General Comment No 17: The Right of Everyone to Benefit from the Protection of the Moral and Material Interests Resulting from Any Scientific, Literary or Artistic Production of Which He Is the Author.” (Article 15(1)(c)), UN Doc. E/C.12/2005, November 21, 2005.Google Scholar
Vaidhyanathan, Siva. “The Googlization of Everything and the Future of Copyright.” UC Davis Law Review 40 (2007): 12071231.Google Scholar
Van Alstyne, Marshall, and Brynjolfsson, Erik. “Global Village or Cyber-Balkans? Modeling and Measuring the Integration of Electronic Communities.” Management Science 51, no. 6 (2005): 851868.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
von Lewinski, Silke, ed. Indigenous Heritage and Intellectual Property: Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore, 2nd ed.The Hague, Netherlands: Kluwer Law International, 2008.Google Scholar
Waelde, Charlotte, and MacQueen, Hector, eds. Intellectual Property: The Many Faces of the Public Domain. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinberger, David. Everything Is Miscellaneous: The Power of the New Digital Disorder. New York: Henry Holt, 2007.Google Scholar
WIPO. Traditional Knowledge: Operational Terms and Definitions. WIPO/GRTKF/IC/3/9. May 20, 2002.Google Scholar
WIPO. Consolidated Analysis of the Legal Protection of Traditional Cultural Expressions. WIPO/GRTKF/IC/5/3, Annex. May 2, 2003.Google Scholar
WIPO. The Protection of Traditional Cultural Expressions/Expressions of Folklore: Revised Objectives and Principles. (Unaltered in the subsequent WIPO documents WIPO/GRTKF/IC/9/4, January 9, 2006; WIPO/GRTKF/IC/10/4, October 2, 2006; WIPO/GRTKF/IC/11/4(a), April 26, 2007, and WIPO/GRTKF/IC/11/4(c), December 6, 2007), Annex, at Article 1. April 8, 2005.Google Scholar
WIPO. The Protection of Traditional Cultural Expressions/Expressions of Folklore: Updated Draft Outline of Policy Options and Legal Mechanisms. WIPO/GRTKF/IC/9/INF/4. March 27, 2006.Google Scholar
WIPO. The Protection of Traditional Cultural Expressions: Draft Gap Analysis. WIPO/GRTKF/IC/13/4(b) Rev., Annex 1. October 11, 2008.Google Scholar
Wu, Tim. “Network Neutrality, Broadband Discrimination.” Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law 2 (2003): 141175.Google Scholar
Wu, Tim. “The Wrong Tail: How to Turn a Powerful Idea into a Dubious Theory of Everything.” Slate, July 21, 2006. ⟨http://www.slate.com/id/2146225/⟩.Google Scholar
Zellen, Barry. “Surf's Up! NWT's Indigenous Communities Await a Tidal Wave of Electronic Information.” Cultural Survival Quarterly 21, no. 4 (1998): 148.Google Scholar
Zittrain, Jonathan L.The Generative Internet.” Harvard Law Review 19742040.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, Ethan. “The Survival of Languages in a Digital Age.” My Heart's in Accra (blog). ⟨http://www.ethanzuckerman.com/blog/?p=1426⟩ (May 16, 2007) accessed September 1, 2009.Google Scholar