¹ Halpern, Manfred, “Middle Eastern Studies: A Review of the State of the Field with a Few Examples,” World Politics, 15 (10 1962), 108–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

² La Palombara, Joseph, “Macrotheories and Microapplications in Comparative Politics: A Widening Chasm,” Comparative Politics, 1 (10 1968), pp. 57–78.Google Scholar

³ Patai, Raphael, “The Middle East as a Culture Continent,” Golden River to Golden Road (Philadelphia, 1967), pp. 13–72.Google Scholar

⁴ E.g., Zonis, Marvin, The Iranian Political Elite (Princeton, 1971)Google Scholar; Quandt, William B., Revolution and Political Leadership: Algeria 1954–1958 (Cambridge, Mass., 1969)Google Scholar, Waterbury, John, The Commander of the Faithful: The Moroccan Political Elite - A Study in Segmented Politics (New York, 1970).Google Scholar

⁵ Almond, Gabriel, “Comparative Political Systems,” Journal of Politics, 18 (1956), 395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸ Almond, Gabriel A. and Verba, Sidney, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton, 1963), p. 13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Chapter I of this book lists many relevant works from the fields of social psychology and anthropology.

⁷ Verba, Sidney, “Comparative Political Culture” in Pye, Lucian W. and Verba, , eds., Political Culture and Political Development (Princeton, 1966), p. 513.Google Scholar For the sociological origins of many of these conceptions see the “theory of action” in Parsons, Talcott, The Social System (New York, 1964), pp. 45–53, 56–58, and chapters 8, 9.Google Scholar

⁸ “National Character in the Perspective of the Social Sciences,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 370 (03 1967)Google Scholar; Inkeles, Alex, “National Character and Modern Political Systems,” in Hsu, Francis L., ed., Psychological Anthropology: Approaches to Culture and Personality (Homewood, Ill., 1961), pp. 72–208.Google Scholar

⁹ For a good, short survey among these lines see “Political Cultures” in Merkl, Peter H., Modern Comparative Politics (New York, 1970), pp. 148–232.Google Scholar

¹⁰ This paragraph is based on Almond and Verba, The Civic Culture, chapter I.

¹¹ Pye, Lucian W., Politics, Personality, and Nation-Building: Burma's Search for Identity (New Haven, 1962).Google Scholar

¹² See, for instance, Holt, Robert E. and Turner, John, The Political Basis of Economic Development (Princeton, 1966), pp. 24–34.Google Scholar

¹³ Eckstein, Harry, “A Theory of Stable Democracy,” reprinted in his Division and Cohesion in Democracy (Princeton, 1966).Google Scholar

¹⁴ Linz, Juan J. and de Miguel, Amando, “Within-Nation Differences and Comparisons: The Eight Spains,” in Merritt, Richard L. and Rokkan, Stein, eds., Comparing Nations (New Haven, 1966)Google Scholar; see also Linz, Juan J., “An Authoritarian Regime: Spain,” in Allardt, Eric and Littunen, Yrjö, eds., Cleavages, Ideologies and Party Systems (Helsinki, 1964), pp. 291–341.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Pye, and Verba, , Political Culture.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Pye, , “Introduction: Political Culture and Political Development,”Google Scholar in ibid., pp. 3–26.

¹⁷ ibid., pp. 22–24.

¹⁸ Almond, Gabriel A. and Powell, G. Bingham Jr., Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach (Boston, 1966), p. 23.Google Scholar

¹⁹ ibid., p. 24.

²⁰ For a partial and fairly unsystematic utilization of the concept of political culture in a textbook, see Beer, Samuel H. and Ulam, Adam B., eds., Patterns of Government (3d ed.; New York, 1958)Google Scholar; Political culture in this book is treated in the following way (p. 33; italics in the text): “Certain aspects of the general culture of a society are especially concerned with how government ought to be conducted and with what it should try to do. This sector of culture we call political culture. As with the general culture of a society, the principal components of the political culture are values, beliefs, and emotional attitudes. In turn, within each of these we can distinguish between elements that emphasize means and those that emphasize ends—between conceptions of authority and conceptions of purpose.”

²¹ Binder, Leonard, “Prolegomena to the Comparative Study of Middle East Governments,” American Political Science Review, 51 (09 1957)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, reprinted in Eckstein, Harry and Apter, David E., eds., Comparative Politics: A Reader (New York, 1963), p. 686.Google Scholar

²² Patai, , “Middle East as a Culture Continent”Google Scholar; idem, “The Middle East as a Culture Area,” Middle East Journal, 6 (Winter, 1952), 1–21.Google Scholar

²³ As the best among these, we probably should mention Gibb, H. A. R., Modern Trends in Islam (Chicago, 1946)Google Scholar, and Smith, W. C., Islam in Modern History (Princeton, 1957)Google Scholar, as well as von Grunebaum, G. E., Modern Islam (New York, 1964).Google Scholar

²⁴ The best in “conventional wisdom” on these is to be found in the works quoted in the previous note, and in Lewis, Bernard, The Arabs in History (New York, 1964)Google Scholar; idem, The Middle East and the West (New York, 1964)Google Scholar; von Grunebaum, G. E., Medieval Islam (Chicago, 1954)Google Scholar; Gibb, H. A. R., Studies on the Civilization of Islam (Boston, 1962)Google Scholar; idem, Mohammedanism (London, 1968)Google Scholar; and Schacht, Joseph, An Introduction to Islamic Law (Oxford, 1964).Google Scholar

²⁵ As in von Grunebaum, , Medieval Islam.Google Scholar

²⁶ This point is made repeatedly in the aforementioned literature.

²⁷ Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 1 (10 1942), 383–395.Google Scholar

²⁸ For an interpretation of Islam as a “charismatic community” see Watt, W. Montgomery, Islam and the Integration of Society (London, 1961).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁹ Modern Trends in Islam, passim.

³⁰ Medieval Islam, passim.

³¹ For a catalogue of what we know - and how little we really know - about politics in the Ottoman period, see Gibb, H. A. R. and Bowen, Harold, Islamic Society and the West, Vol. I, Islamic Society in the XVIIIth Century, Parts I and II (London, 1950–1957).Google Scholar The main theoretical source of the book, Lybyer, Albert H., The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent (Cambridge, 1913)CrossRefGoogle Scholar must be read with the modifications suggested in Itzkowitz, Norman, “Eighteenth Century Ottoman Realities,” Studia Islamica, 16 (1962), 73–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³² A possible exception to this statement is Rustow, Dankwart A., “Turkey: The Modernity of Tradition,”Google Scholar in Pye, and Verba, , Political Culture and Political Development, pp. 171–198.Google Scholar Like most other essays in that volume, Rustow's paper is full of interesting and suggestive ideas, but clearly does not fit into any systematic, theoretical framework.

³³ For a few suggestive ideas along such lines, see Inalcik, Halil, “The Nature of Traditional Society: Turkey,” in Ward, Robert E. and Rustow, Dankwart A., Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey (Princeton, 1964), pp. 42–63.Google Scholar

³⁴ A most intriguing question in this context, of course, is that the existence, role, and impact of political parties seem to fare so much better in Turkey than in the Arab countries.

³⁵ New York, 1962.

³⁶ ibid., chap. 5 and parts of chap. 2.

³⁷ New York, 1960.

³⁸ Berger, , Arab World Today, pp. 136–137.Google Scholar

³⁹ Middle East Journal, 5 (Summer 1951), 284–302.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ All the points mentioned here are taken from Berger, , Arab World Today, chap. 5.Google Scholar

⁴¹ “Egypt: The Integrative Revolution,” in Pye, and Verba, , Political Culture, pp. 396–449.Google Scholar

⁴² ibid., p. 409.

⁴³ ibid., p. 410.

⁴⁴ ibid., pp. 410–411.

⁴⁵ ibid., p. 413.

⁴⁶ London, 1954.

⁴⁷ The following citation of Ammar's ideas from his Fi Binaa al-Bashar: Dirasat fi'l Taghyeer al-Hadari wa'l: Fikr al Tarbawi (On Building Human Beings: Studies in Cultural Change and Educational Thought), first published in Lebanon in 1964, and republished in a new edition in 1971, is taken from the review by Rejwan, Nissim, “Culture and Personality: Building the New Egyptian Man,” The New Middle East, 41 (02 1972), pp. 16–18.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Ibid., p. 17.

⁴⁹ Quandt, Revolution.

⁵⁰ Ibid., p. 280.

⁵¹ Waterbury, , Commander of the Faithful.Google Scholar

⁵² “On Theory and Practice among Arabs,” World Politics, 24 (10 1971), 106–126.Google Scholar

⁵³ Waterbury, , Commander of the Faithful, p. 5.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ ibid., p. 321.

⁵⁵ ibid., p. 77.

⁵⁶ ibid., p. 66.

⁵⁷ Moore, , “On Theory and Practice among Arabs,” p. 120.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ These were indeed among the original purposes for developing the political culture approach. See chap, I of Almond and Verba, The Civic Culture.

⁵⁹ In general, the political theory and attitudes of Shiites and other minorities have been relatively neglected and are clearly in need of much more research.

⁶⁰ Such a hypothesis almost inevitably emerges even at the reading of a single recounting of contemporary Syrian politics, e.g., Scale, Patrick, The Struggle for Syria (London, 1965)Google Scholar, or a general history as Tibawi, A. L., A Modern History of Syria (New York, 1969).Google Scholar

⁶¹ Cf. one of the leading contemporary approaches to the study of political development, Huntingdon, Samuel P., Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, 1968).Google Scholar

⁶² Lerner, Daniel, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York, 1958).Google Scholar

⁶³ McClelland, David C., The Achieving Society (Princeton, 1961).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶⁴ On this see also the shorter version of McClelland's book, “The Achievement Motive in Economic Growth,” in Finkle, Jason L. and Gable, Richard W., eds., Political Development and Social Change (New York, 1966), pp. 130–156.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ E.g., Halpern, Manfred, The Politics of Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa (Princeton, 1963), p. 46Google Scholar, and Kedourie, Elie, The Chatham House Version and other Middle Eastern Essays (London, 1970), chap. 12.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Many relevant, but scattered remarks on the connection between cultural background and contemporary politics in the Arab world can be found in Hottinger, Arnold, The Arabs (Berkeley, 1963)Google Scholar, and Berque, Jacques, Les Arabes D'hier a demain (Paris, 1969).Google Scholar For more systematic, if less consciously “cultural,” remarks see Halpern, , The Politics of Social ChangeGoogle Scholar, and Kedourie, , Chatham Hottse Version.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Khaldun, Ibn, The Muqaddimah (New York, 1958)Google Scholar; Mahdi, Muhsin, Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History (Chicago, 1964), chap. 5.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Kedourie, , Chatham House Version, p. 384.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Halpern, , The Politics of Social Change, chap. I.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ See the excellent book Politics in North Africa by Moore, Clement Henry (Boston, 1970), chap. 1. This work uses in a modified, partial way the Almond scheme of comparative politics, and has much of value to say on North African political culture.Google Scholar

⁷¹ “Submissiveness and Revolt of the Fellah,” in his Studies in the Social History of Modern Egypt (Chicago, 1969), pp. 93–108.Google Scholar

⁷² Peristiany, J. G., ed., Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society (London, 1965)Google Scholar, and Pitt-Rivers, Julian, ed., Mediterranean Countrymen (Paris, 1963).Google Scholar

⁷³ Scott, Robert E., “Mexico, The Established Revolution,”Google Scholar in Pye, and Verba, , Political Culture, pp. 330–395.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Weiner, Myron, “Political Participation: Crisis of the Political Process” in Binder, Leonard, eds., Crises and Sequences in Political Development (Princeton, 1971), pp. 159–204.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ For a good review of the literature on patron-client relationships see Lamarchand, Rene and Legg, Keith, “Political Clientelism and Political Development: A Preliminary Analysis,” Comparative Politics, 4 (01, 1972), pp. 149–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁷⁶ Geertz, Clifford, Islam Observed (New Haven, 1968).Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Berger, , The Arab World Today, chap. 5.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Hamady, , Temperament and Character of the Arabs.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ This was also the case ten years ago, according to Halpern, “Middle Eastern Studies.”

⁸⁰ Halpern, Manfred, “Dialectics of Continuity, Change, Collaboration, Conflict, and Justice in Traditional Muslim Societies,”Google Scholar paper delivered at the plenary session of the second annual meeting of the Middle East Studies Association, Austin, Texas, November, 1968. See also his forthcoming The Dialectics of Transformation in Politics, Personality and History (Princeton University Press). Halpern's original and provocative approach has much to offer also to the “conventional” study of political culture in the Middle East.

⁸¹ In order to accomplish this, of course, there is need to go beyond the somewhat formal-istically oriented scheme of reference of constitutional arrangements in Flory, Maurice F. and Mantran, Robert, Les Regimes Politiques des pays arabes (Paris, 1968), pp. 130–157.Google Scholar Even that limited series of observations, however, has something relevant to offer, particularly in terms of symbols and images of leadership.