1. Analyses of the early period of Latin-American labor movements include: Victor, Alba, Politics and the Labor Movement in Latin America (Stanford, CA, 1968)Google Scholar; Robert, Alexander, Organized Labor in Latin America (New York, 1965)Google Scholar; Charles, Bergquist, Labor in Latin America: Comparative Essays on Chile, Argentina, Venezuela, and Colombia (Stanford, 1986)Google Scholar; David, Collier and Ruth, Berins Collier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement and Regime Dynamics in Latin America (Princeton, NJ, 1991)Google Scholar; Hobart, Spalding, Organized Labor in Latin America: Historical Case Studies of Workers in Dependent Societies (New York, 1977)Google Scholar.

For Batlle and the social question in Uruguay, see Milton, I. Vanger, The Model Country: José Batlle y Ordóñez of Uruguay, 1907–1915 (Manchester, NH, 1980)Google Scholar; Christine, Ehrick, The Shield of the Weak: Feminism and the State in Uruguay, 1903–1933 (Albuquerque, 2005)Google Scholar; Robert, J. Alexander, A History of Organized Labor in Uruguay and Paraguay (Westport, CT, 2005)Google Scholar; and Peter, Winn, “Huelga y respuesta en ‘las minas de carne y cuero’: la cuestión obrera en el Uruguay del Novecientos,” in A 90 años de los sucesos de la Escuela Santa María de Iquique, ed. Sergio, González Miranda (Santiago, Chile, 1998): 337–348Google Scholar; and Collier & Collier, Shaping the Political Arena. For Moíses Poblete Troncoso and the social question in Chile, see James, O. Morris, Elites, Intellectuals and Consensus: A Study of the Social Question and the Industrial Relations System in Chile (Ithaca, 1966)Google Scholar.

2. There is a large literature on import substitution industrialization, and a vast literature on the experience of individual countries. The pivotal policy proposals for ISI were written by Raúl Prebisch and published by the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA/CEPAL) during the 1940s and 1950s. A classic analysis by social scientists who were present at the creation is Fernando, Henrique Cardoso and Enzo, Faletto, Dependency and Development in Latin America, trans. Marjory, Mattingly Urquidi (Berkeley, 1979)Google Scholar. For recent economic histories of ISI in Latin America, see Victor, Bulmer-Thomas, Cambridge Economic History of Latin America: The Long Twentieth Century (Cambridge, 2005)Google Scholar; Rosemary, Thorp, Progress, Poverty and Exclusion: An Economic History of Latin America in the 20th Century (Baltimore, 1998)Google Scholar; and Manufacturing Miracles: Paths of Industrialization in Latin America and East Asia, ed. Gary Gereffi and Donald L. Wyman (Princeton, NJ, 1990).

3. On Argentina, see: Daniel, James, Resistance and Integration: Peronism and the Argentine Working Class, 1946–1976 (Cambridge, 1988)Google Scholar; Joel, Horowitz, Argentine Unions, the State, and the Rise of Perón, 1930–1945 (Berkeley, 1990)Google Scholar; and David, Tamarin, The Argentine Labor Movement, 1930–1945: A Study in the Origins of Peronism (Albuquerque, 1985)Google Scholar. For Brazil, see John, French, The Brazilian Workers' ABC: Class Conflict and Alliances in Modern São Paulo (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992)Google Scholar; and Drowning in Laws: Labor Law and Brazilian Political Culture (Chapel Hill, 2006); Kenneth, P. Erickson, The Brazilian Corporative State and Working-class Politics (Berkeley, 1977)Google Scholar; Barbara, Weinstein, For Social Peace in Brazil (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996)Google Scholar; and Salvador, A.M. Sandoval, Social Change and Industrial Unrest in Brazil since 1945 (Boulder, 1993)Google Scholar. On Chile's Popular Front and its limitations on rural labor organization, see: Paul, Drake, Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932–1952 (Urbana, 1978)Google Scholar; and Brian, Loveman, Struggle in the Countryside: Politics and Rural Labor in Chile, 1919–1973 (Bloomington, 1976)Google Scholar.

4. On Colombia, see Chomsky, this volume; Michael, F. Jimenez, “At the Banquet of Civilization: The Limits of Planter Hegemony in Early Twentieth Century Colombia,” in Coffee, Power, and Society in Latin America, ed. William, Roseberry, Lowell, Gudmunson, and Mario, Samper Kutschbach (Baltimore, 1995), 262–294Google Scholar; Ann, Farnsworth-Alvear, Dulcinea in the Factory: Myths, Morals, Men and Women in Colombia's Industrial Experiment, 1905–1960 (Durham, NC, 2000), 16–17Google Scholar; Charles, Bergquist, Coffee and Conflict in Colombia, 1886–1910 (Durham, NC, 1986) and Labor in Latin America, Chap. 5Google Scholar.

5. On Central America, see Ralph, L. Woodward, Central America: A Nation Divided, 3rd ed. (New York, 1999)Google Scholar; and Victor, Bulmer-Thomas, The Political Economy of Central America Since 1920 (Cambridge, 1987)Google Scholar. For Nicaragua, see: Jeffrey, Gould, To Lead as Equals: Rural Protest and Political Consciousness in Chinandega, Nicaragua, 1912–1979 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1990)Google Scholar. On Guatemala, see: Paul, Dosal, Power in Transition: The Rise of Guatemala's Industrial Oligarchy, 1871–1994 (Westport, CT, 1995)Google Scholar; Piero, Gleijeses, Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States (Princeton, 1991)Google Scholar; Deborah, Levenson-Estrada, Trade Unionists against State Terror (Chapel Hill, NC, 1994)Google Scholar; Jim, Handy, Revolution in the Countryside: Rural Conflict and Agrarian Reform in Guatemala, 1944–1954 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1994)Google Scholar; and Deborah, Yashar, Demanding Democracy: Reform and Reaction in Costa Rica and Guatemala, 1870s–1950s (Palo Alto, 1997)Google Scholar. On El Salvador, see Thomas, Anderson, Matanza, 2nd ed. (Willimantic, CT, 1992)Google Scholar; Roque, Dalton, Miguel Marmol (Willimantic, CT, 1987)Google Scholar; Jeffrey, Paige, Coffee and Power (Cambridge, MA, 1996)Google Scholar; and James, Dunkerley, The Long War: Dictatorship and Revolution in El Salvador (London, 1982)Google Scholar.

6. See: Canak, William L., ed., Lost Promises: Debt, Austerity, and Development in Latin America (Boulder, CO, 1989)Google Scholar; Gustafson, Lowell, ed., Economic Development Under Democratic Regimes: Neoliberalism in Latin America (Westport, CT, 1994)Google Scholar; Stallings, Barbara and Kaufman, Robert, eds. Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO, 1989)Google Scholar; Portes, Alejandro, “Latin American Urbanization during the Years of the Crisis,” Latin American Research Review 24:3 (1989): 7–44Google Scholar; Portes, Alejandro and Hoffman, Kelly, “Latin American Class Structures: Their Composition and Change during the Neoliberal Era,” Latin American Research Review 38:1 (February 2003), 41–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Vilas, Carlos, “Forward Back: Capitalist Restructuring, the State, and the Working Class in Latin America,” in ed. Wither Marxism? Global Crises in International Perspective Magnus, Bernd and Cullenberg, Stephen, (London, 1995), 123–152Google Scholar.

7. See: Stepan, Alfred and Linz, Juan, eds., The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Latin America (Baltimore, 1978)Google Scholar; Collier, David, ed. The New Authoritarianism in Latin America (Princeton, 1979)Google Scholar; Rouquié, Alain, The Military and the State in Latin America (Berkeley, 1989)Google Scholar; O'Donnell, Guillermo, Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics (Berkeley, 1973)Google Scholar; Loveman, Brian, For la Patria: Politics and the Armed Forces in Latin America (Wilmington, DE, 1999)Google Scholar.

8. On Chile, see: Barnard, Andrew, “Chile,” in Latin America Between the Second World War and the Cold War, 1944–1948, ed. Bethell, Leslie and Roxborough, Ian (Cambridge, 1992), 66–91Google Scholar; and Klubock, Thomas Miller, Contested Communities: Class, Gender, and Politics in Chile's El Teniente Copper Mine, 1904–1951 (Durham, NC, 1998)Google Scholar. On Guatemala, see: Levenson-Estrada, Trade Unionists; Handy, Revolution in the Countryside; and Yashar, Demanding Democracy. On Bolivia, see: Nash, June, We Eat the Mines and the Mines Eat Us: Dependency and Exploitation in the Bolivian Tin Mines (New York, 1979)Google Scholar; Nash, June, I Spent My Life in the Mines: The Story of Juan Rojas, Bolivian Tin Miner (New York, 1992)Google Scholar; Klein, Herbert, Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society (Oxford, 1982)Google Scholar; de Chungará, Domitila Barrios and Viezzer, Moema, Let me Speak! Testimony of Domitila, A Woman of the Bolivian Mines, trans. Ortiz, Victoria (New York, 1979)Google Scholar; Malloy, James, Bolivia: The Uncompleted Revolution (Pittsburgh, 1970)Google Scholar; Dunkerley, James, Rebellion in the Veins (London, 1984)Google Scholar.

9. See: Keck, Margaret, The Workers' Party in Brazil (New Haven, 1990)Google Scholar; Seidman, Gay, Manufacturing Militance: Workers' Movements in Brazil and South Africa, 1970–1985 (Berkeley, 1994)Google Scholar; Humphrey, John, Capitalist Control and Workers' Struggle in the Brazilian Auto Industry (Princeton, 1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sandoval, Social Change and Industrial Unrest.

10. Theoretical discussions of transnational activism include: Keck, Margaret E., “Social Equity and Environmental Politics in Brazil: Lessons from the Rubber Tappers of Acre,” Comparative Politics (July 1995): 409–424CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Keck, Margaret and Sikkink, Katherine, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca, 1998)Google Scholar; Tarrow, Sidney, “Transnational Politics: Contention and Institutions in International Politics,” Annual Review of Political Science 4 (2001): 1–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Imig, Doug and Tarrow, Sidney, eds., Contentious Europeans: Protest and Politics in an Emerging Polity (Lanham, UK, 2001)Google Scholar; and Smith, Jackie, “Globalizing Resistance: The Battle of Seattle and the Future of Social Movements,” Mobilization 6:1 (2001): 1–19Google Scholar. Analyses of labor internationalism in Latin America include: Frundt, Henry J., “Trade and Cross-Border Labor Strategies in the Americas,” Economic and Industrial Democracy 17 (1996): 387–417CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Carr, Barry, “Globalization from Below: Labour Internationalism under NAFTA” International Social Science Journal 51:1 (March 1999): 49–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ayres, Jeffrey, Defying Conventional Wisdom (Toronto, 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Armbruster-Sandoval, Ralph, Globalization and Cross-Border Labor Solidarity in the Americas: The Anti-Sweatshop Movement and the Struggle for Social Justice (London, 2004)Google Scholar; Bickham-Mendez, Jennifer, From the Revolution to the Maquiladoras: Gender, Labor, and Globalization in Nicaragua (Durham, NC, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dreiling, Michael, Solidarity and Contention: The Politics of Security and Sustainability in the NAFTA Conflict (New York, 2001)Google Scholar; Josselin, Daphné, “Back to the Front Line?: Trade Unions in a Global Age,” in Non-State Actors in World Politics, ed. Josselin, Daphné and Wallace, William (Houndmills, UK, 2001), 169–188CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stillerman, Joel, “Transnational Activist Networks and the Emergence of Labor Internationalism in the NAFTA Countries” Social Science History 27:4, Special Issue on Labor Internationalism (Winter 2003): 577–602CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Herod, Andrew, “Geographies of Labor Internationalism,” Social Science History 27:4 (Winter 2003): 501–523CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Williams, Heather L., “Of Labor Tragedy and Legal Farce,” Social Science History 27:4 (Winter 2003): 525–550Google Scholar; and Kay, Tamara, “Labor Transnationalism and Global Governance: The Impact of NAFTA on Transnational Labor Relationships in North America,” American Journal of Sociology 111:3 (November 2005): 715–756CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11. Roberts, Kenneth M., Deepening Democracy?: The Modern Left and Social Movements in Chile and Peru (Palo Alto, 1998)Google Scholar. On the recent evolution of labor unions in Perú, see: Parodi, Jorge, To be a Worker: Identity and Politics in Perú, ed. and trans., Conaghan, Catherine (Chapel Hill, NC, 2000)Google Scholar. On Chilean unions' recent trajectory, see: Winn, Peter, ed., Victims of the Chilean Miracle: Workers and Neoliberalism in the Pinochet Era, 1973–2002 (Durham, NC, 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12. We are grateful to the Ford-LASA Special Projects Fund for their generous support, without which we would not have been able to carry out the conference or create this special issue.