¹ Although the roots of functionalist thinking begin before World War I (e.g., Reinseh, Paul, Public International Unions, Boston: Ginn & Co., 1911)Google Scholar, the approach is first developed most fully in the works of David Mitrany, especially his A Working Peace System (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1943)Google Scholar, and is not to be confused with functionalism in sociology. Quotes from A Working Peace System in this article are taken from the 1948 edition.

² Cf. Angell, Robert C., Peace on the March (New York: Van Nostrand, 1969).Google Scholar Observing the popularity of the realist approach in college political science courses and its wide acceptance in the world's foreign ministries, Angell attempts to bring realism into harness by charting the increasing growth and accommodative influence of various forms of international organization.

³ Haas, Ernst B., Beyond the Nation State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964)Google Scholar; and The Uniting of Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958).Google Scholar

⁴ Sewell, James P., Functionalism and World Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵ See, for example: Bleicher, Samuel A., “U.N. v. IBRD: A Dilemma of Functionalism,” International Organization, Winter 1970 (Vol. 24, No. 1), pp. 31–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Claude, Inis L. Jr, “The U.N., the U.S., and the Maintenance of Peace,” International Organization, Winter 1969 (Vol. 23, No. 1), pp. 621–636CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Slater, Jerome, “The Limits of Legitimation in International Organizations: The OAS and the Dominican Crisis,” International Organization, Winter 1969 (Vol. 23, No. 1), pp. 48–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cox, Robert W., “The Executive Head: An Essay on Leadership in International Organizations,” International Organization, Winter 1969 (Vol. 23, No. 1), pp. 205–230CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kay, David A., “Secondment in the United Nations Secretariat: An Alternate View,” International Organization, Winter 1966 (Vol. 20, No. 1), pp. 63–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶ Mitrany, David, A Working Peace System (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1948), p. 35.Google Scholar

⁷ Mitrany, David, “The Functional Approach to World Organization,” International Affairs, 07 1948 (Vol. 23), p. 347.Google Scholar

⁸ Mitrany, , A Working Peace System, 1948, p. 35.Google Scholar

⁹ ibid., p. 26.

¹⁰ Mitrany, David, “International Cooperation in Action,” International Associations, 09 1959 (Vol. 11), p. 647.Google Scholar

¹¹ See: Haas, Beyond the Nation State; Haas, Ernst B. and Schmitter, Phillipe C., “Economics and Differential Patterns of Political Integration: Projections about Unity in Latin America,” in International Political Communities: An Anthology (New York: Doubleday, 1966), p. 259–299;Google ScholarEtzioni, Amitai, Political Unification (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964)Google Scholar; and Schmitter, Phillipe C., “Three Neo–Functionalist Hypotheses about International Integration,” International Organization, Spring 1969 (Vol. 23, No. 2), pp. 161–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For a review and recent critique of the neo–functionalist approach, see: Hansen, Roger D., “Regional Integration: Reflections on a Decade of Theoretical Efforts,” World Politics, 01 1969 (Vol. 21), pp. 242–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹² “Economics and Differential Patterns of Political Integration: Projections about Unity in Latin America,” pp. 261–262.

¹³ ibid., p. 262. Cf. Haas, Ernst B., “International Integration: the European and the Universal Process,” International Organization, Summer 1961 (Vol. 15, No. 3), pp. 366–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁴ This is to say that the successfulness of an organization depends perhaps as much on its capability to attain goals in relation to its environment as on the positive experiences and attitudes of its members. In the words of Chester Barnard: “The vitality of organizations lies in the willingness of individuals to contribute the forces to the cooperative system. This willingness requires the belief that the purpose can be carried out, a faith that diminishes to the vanishing point when it appears that it is not in fact in process of being attained. Hence, when effectiveness ceases, willingness to contribute disappears. The continuance of willingness also depends upon the satisfactions that are secured by individual contributors in the process of carrying out the purpose. If satisfactions do not exceed the sacrifices required, willingness disappears, and the condition is one of organizational inefficiency. If satisfaction exceeds sacrifices, willingness persists, and the condition is one of efficiency of organization.” Barnard, Chester I., The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963), p. 82.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Mitrany, , A Working Peace System, p. 40.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Kelman, Herbert C., “Changing Attitudes through International Activities,” Journal of Social Issues, 1962 (18), pp. 67–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁷ Katz, Daniel, “Consistent Reactive Participation of Group Members and the Reduction of Intergroup Conflict,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 1959 (3), p. 32CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also: Katz, Daniel, “The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 1960 (24).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁸ Kelman, , “Changing Attitudes,” 1962, p. 69.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Martin, Curtis W., “The History and Theory of the Functional Approach to International Organization,” unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1950, p. 277.Google Scholar

²⁰ Claude, Inis L. Jr, Swords into Plowshares (New York: Random House, 1964), pp. 377–378.Google Scholar

²¹ Cardozo, Michael, Diplomats in International Cooperation: Stepchildren of the Foreign Service (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1962), pp. 110–111.Google Scholar

²² Harold K. Jacobson has discussed the difficulties and expense of research on these types of problems in greater detail than space permits us here. See: Jacobson, Harold K., “Deriving Data from Delegates to International Assemblies: a Research Note,” International Organization, Summer 1967 (Vol. 21, No. 3), pp. 592–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar We discuss Jacobson's findings in the sections which follow.

²³ Within nongovernmental organizations, a further distinction should perhaps be made between “public” and “private” types, where the latter would include multinational corporations. Work on the multinational corporation is just beginning and as yet has not focused on attitudes or attitude change. For an excellent general discussion of multinational corporations and their increasing significance, see: Osterberg, David and Ajami, Fuad, “The Multi–national Corporation: Expanding the Frontiers of World Politics,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 12 1971 (15), pp. 457–470.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁴ Alger, Chadwick F., “United Nations Participation as a Learning Experience,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 27 (Fall, 1963), pp. 411–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Also: Alger, Chadwick F., “Non–resolution Consequences of the United Nations and their Effect on International Conflict,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 5 (1961), pp. 128–145CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Alger, , “Personal Contact in Intergovernmental Organizations,” in Kelman, H. C. (ed.), International Behavior (New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1966).Google Scholar

²⁵ Best, Gary, “Diplomacy in the United Nations,” unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1960.Google Scholar

²⁶ “United Nations Participation,” 1963.

²⁷ This lends some support to the “fractionating” of conflict hypothesis proposed by Fisher where, in the context of the UN, states are generally more likely to confront each other on a variety of particular and discrete issues rather than on those defined in broad and overarching terms. Fisher, Roger, “Fractionating Conflict,” in Roger, Fisher (ed.), International Conflict and Behavioral Science (New York: Basic Books, 1964), pp. 91–109.Google Scholar

²⁸ Alger, , “Personal Contact in Intergovernmental Organizations,” 1966, p. 514.Google Scholar

²⁹ Jacobson, , “Deriving Data from Delegates to International Assemblies: a Research Note,” 1967.Google Scholar

³⁰ A plausible reason for this response may be the shortage of highly skilled personnel in developing countries, but it may also reflect unsupportive policies of many governments in relation to international organizations. Secondment may nevertheless provide conditions favorable to attitude change. For a fuller discussion of the importance of secondment, see: Kay, David A., “Secondment in the United Nations Secretariat: an Alternate View,” 1966, pp. 63–75.Google Scholar

³¹ Vincent, Jack E., “National Attributes as Predictors of Delegate Attitudes at the United Nations,” American Political Science Review, 09 1968 (62), pp. 916–931CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Vincent, and, “The Convergence of Voting and Attitude Patterns at the United Nations,” Journal of Politics, 11 1969 (31), pp. 953–983.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³² Specifically, they were given a scale on which they indicated the extent to which they:

a. were satisfied or dissatisfied with voting procedures, Charter membership arrangements, understandings or agreements to allocate seats or positions, and the role and past performance of each of the UN organs.

b. believed particular organs were increasing or decreasing in importance now, in the future, or that increases or decreases in an organ's role or powers are desirable.

c. believed that important changes in membership arrangements will probably occur in the next few years.

³³ Banks, Arthur S. and Textor, Robert B., A Cross Polity Survey (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1963).Google Scholar

³⁴ Vincent, , “The Convergence of Voting and Attitude Patterns,” 1969Google Scholar; and Russett, Bruce M., “Discovering Voting Groups in the UN,” American Political Science Review, 06 1966 (60), pp. 327–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁵ Matecki, B. E., Establishment of the International Finance Corporation and the United States Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957).Google Scholar

³⁶ The international organizations to which Matecki is referring are the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and various other UN agencies.

³⁷ Matecki, , Establishment of the International Finance Corporation, p. 2.Google Scholar

³⁸ ibid., pp. 159–160.

³⁹ ibid., p. 159.

⁴⁰ Sewell, James P., Functionalism and World Politics, 1966.Google Scholar Note that Matecki also focused on these organizations, particularly IFC and IBRD.

⁴¹ ibid., p. 295.

⁴² ibid., p. 291.

⁴³ Matecki, , Establishment of the International Finance Corporation, p. 162.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Galtung, Ingrid, “The Status of the Technical Assistance Expert,” Journal of Peace Research, 1966, pp. 359–379.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ ibid., p. 367.

⁴⁶ Osterberg and Ajami observe that very few multinational corporations have a multinational staff at the higher managerial levels. The study of attitude change in these organizations would be very important. Aside from these few corporations, the focus will be essentially on middle and lower ranking employees, and while significant in the long run, should perhaps have limited implications for higher levels of organizational decision–making. Osterberg, and Ajami, , “The Multi–National Corporation,” 1971.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Chadwick, F. Alger, “Research on Research: a Decade of Quantitative and Field Research on International Organizations,” International Organization, Summer 1970 (Vol. 24, No. 3), p. 440.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Angell, Robert C., Peace on the March, pp. 143–144.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Kriesberg, Louis, “U.S. and U.S.S.R. Participation in International Nongovernmental Organizations,” in Louis, Kriesberg (ed.), Social Processes in International Relations (New York: John Wiley 1968), pp. 466–485.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ See footnote 27.

⁵¹ Kriesberg, , “U.S. and U.S.S.R. Participation,” p. 480.Google Scholar

⁵² Kelman, Herbert C., “Compliance, Identification, and Internalization: Three Processes of Attitude Change,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 03 1958 (2), pp. 51–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵³ Coser, Lewis, The Functions of Social Conflict (New York: Free Press, 1956).Google Scholar