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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 13 January 2010
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870 had shown just how difficult it was to ensure respect for international law during actual fighting. Mutual accusations of violations of the Geneva Convention, or more generally of the customary laws of war, showed that neither the scope of humanitarian law nor the dissemination of its principles had been sufficient to avert excesses by the combatants. The protection of medical services and of the wounded should remain independent of the conduct of hostilities. But violations of the law of war, whether real or imagined, inevitably undermine the implementation of the Convention. Public opinion (quickly aroused), the press (always keen on shoring up the spirit of resistance), and governments themselves never miss an opportunity to highlight or exaggerate criminal acts committed by the adversary and to make a blanket condemnation of all enemy combatants.
1 Moynier, G., Réminiscenes — Belgique, Pays-Bas, Luxembourg, pp. 23–24 Google Scholar. Typed manuscript, ICRC Archives, Moynier collection. Bernard BOUVIER quoted part of this text in his pamphlet devoted to Gustave Moynier (Gustave Moynier, printery of the Journal de Genève, 1918, p. 26 Google Scholar), based on a lecture given at the assembly hall of the University of Geneva on 12 March 1917. An excerpt from the lecture (pp. 22–34) appeared in the Tribune de Genève of 10–13 February 1918, entitled De la création par Gustave Moynier de l'lnstitut de Droit International.
2 Gustave Rolin-Jaequemyns, born in Ghent (1835–1902), a doctor of laws and political and administrative sciences. One of the founders and editor-in-chief (1869–1878) of the Revue de droit international et de législation comparée (Journal of International and Comparative Law). Principal founder of the Institute of International Law, first General Secretary, then president in 1879. Member of the Academy of Belgium. Member of the House of Representatives of Belgium, Minister of the Interior (1878). His brother Albéric Rolin, a lawyer at the Court of Appeal at Ghent, was assistant secretary of the IIL when it was founded, then secretary and auxiliary member (1874).
3 Alphonse Rivier, from Lausanne, Doctor of Law from the University of Berlin (1858) lecturer at that university (1862), professor at the Universities of Bern (1863–67) and Brussels (1867), Secretary and auxiliary member of the IIL (1874), author of many legal studies, member of the Swiss Federal Commission for the drafting of a federal code of obligations.
4 For the history of the founding of the Institute, see Rivier, Alphonse, L'Institut de droit international, Bibliothèque universelle, Lausanne-Geneva, vol. 51, 1874 Google Scholar; Yearbook of the Institute of International Law, 1877 Google Scholar et. seq.; Yakemtchouk, Romain “Les origines de I'Institut de droit international” in Revue générate de Droit international public, 77th year. 04–06 1973, No. 2Google Scholar; Rolin, Albéric, “Discours”, in IIL Annuaire, 21st session Ghent. 1906 Google Scholar. obituary on Gustave Moynier in IIL Annuaire, 1911, and Les origines de l'Institut de droit international, 1873–1923 — Souvenirs d'un témoin, Brussels, undated, [1923]; August Schou, “L'Institut de droit international”, in Histoire de l'internationalisme, t. 3 Oslo, Norwegian Nobel Institute, 1963; and the “Livre du centenaire, of the IIL, Basel, 1973.
5 Francis Lieber (1798–1872). Professor of International Law at Columbia College (University of New York). Author of Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, published by the War Department, 24 April 1863. Collaborator of the Journal of International and Comparative Law. He died on 22 October 1872, 11 months before the founding of the IIL of which he was one of the initiators.
6 Jean-Gaspard Bluntschli (1808–1881), from Zurich. He had a legal and political career, first at Zurich (professor of Roman Law, State Councillor, drafter of the Zurich Civil Code), then at Munich and Heidelberg (professor of international law and political sciences, member of the parliament of Baden), member of the drafting commission of the Federal Code of Obligations. See Schindler, Dietrich, “Jean Gaspard Bluntschli”, in Livre du Centenaire, op. cit., 1973, pp. 45–60.Google Scholar
7 David Dudley Field (1805–1894) initiator of the Association pour la réforme et la codification du droit des gens, founded in Brussels in 1873, which was later to become the International Law Association.
8 Lieber to Rolin-Jaequemyns, , 09 1871 Google Scholar. Letter quoted in English by Rolin-Jaequemyns, with the translation as a note, in his important article in the Revue de droit international et de législation comparée, 5th year, 1873: De la nécessité d'organiser une institution scientifique permanente pour favoriser l'étude et les progrès du droit international, pp. 480–481.Google Scholar
9 Lieber to General Dufour, 10 April 1872. Based on the French translation published by Rolin-Jaequemyns in “Note sur le projet de M. Moynier, relatif à l'établissement d'une institution judiciaire”, protectrice de la Convention, Revue de droit international et de législation comparée, 1872, 4th year, 2nd edition, p. 325. The circular containing Moynier's note (No. 28, of 28 January 1882) was signed by General Dufour, honorary President, “in the absence of the President”.
10 Moynier, G., Note sur la création d'une Institution judiciaire international propre à prévenir et à réprimer les infractions à la Convention de Genève Google Scholar, ICRC, 28th circular, 28 January 1872. Moynier is referring here to the Treaty of Washington of 8 May 1871, reached between the United States and Great Britain.
11 Rolin-Jaequemyns, , Note sur le projet de M. Moynier …, pp. 345–346.Google Scholar
12 Gustave Moynier to Bluntschli, 17 November 1872, Zurich Central Library. Facsimile, Geneva University Library.
13 Rolin-Jaequemyns to Bluntschli, 17 November 1872. Yakemtchouk, , op. cit., p. 403.Google Scholar
14 Bluntschli to Rolin-Jaequemyns, 22 November 1872. Quoted by Albéric Rolin, Les origines de l'IDI (cf. Note 4), p. 11 (in translation), and by Yakemtchouk. p. 404 (in the German).
15 Moynier, G., Ma contribution aux progrès du droit international, pp. 9–10 Google Scholar. typed manuscript, ICRC archives, Moynier collection.
16 Moynier, G. to Rolin-Jaequemyns, , 7 04 1873 Google Scholar. ACICR, Moynier collection, copies of letters dispatched, p. 12.
17 Journal de Genève, 5 08 1873 Google Scholar, “Le congrès de Gand et l'Institut du droit des gens”, unsigned article. See also Journal de Genève, 16 September 1873, “L'Institut de droit international”, and the Bulletin international des sociétés de secours (International Bulletin of Relief Societies), January 1874, pp. 99–103, “Fondation de l'Institut de droit international”.
18 Moynier, G., Ma contribution …, op. cit., p. 10 Google Scholar. Present at the Ghent meeting were: Asser (Amsterdam), W. Besobrasoff (St. Petersburg), Bluntschli (Heidelberg), Carlos Calvo (Buenos Aires), D. Dudley Field (New York), E. de Laveleye (Liège), J. Lorimer (Edinburgh), Mancini (Rome), Moynier (Geneva), Pierantoni (Naples), Rolin-Jaequemyns (Ghent). Twenty-two of the jurists invited had presented their excuses, but approved the project, with or without reservations. It was to their encouragement that Gustave Moynier was referring when he used the word exhorte, an archaic French term for exhortation, counsel ( Godefroy, F., Dictionnaire de l'ancienne langue française. … Paris. 1884).Google Scholar
19 The IIL, which has to date carried out and developed the programme given to it by its founders, received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1904 for its activities.
20 See the Bulletin international of Relief Societies, October 1871, No. 9, pp. 16–20 for a synopsis of the book written by Mme de Crombrugghe, Journal d'une infirmière pendant la guerre de 1870–1871, Brussels, 1871.Google Scholar
21 Moynier, G., Réminiscences, p. 30 Google Scholar, Manuscript, ACICR, Moynier collection.
22 Moynier, G. to Rolin-Jaequemyns, , 17 04 1873 Google Scholar. ACICR, Moynier collection record of copies of letters dispatched, p. 13.
23 Pascal Stanislas Mancini, born in Castelbaronia in 1817, Italian jurist and statesman. Member of Parliament, Minister of Justice (March 1876), Professor of international law and Chairman of the Faculty of Law at the University of Rome.
24 See in this regard Danièle Bujard, “The Geneva Convention of 1864 and the Brussels Conference of 1874”, in IRRC No. 670, 10 1974, 527–537 CrossRefGoogle Scholar and November 1974, pp. 639–649, as well as Yvonne de Pourtalès and Durand, Roger, “Henry Dunant, promoter of the Brussels Conference of 1874, pioneer of diplomatic protection of prisoners of war”, IRRC No. 674, 02 1975, pp. 61–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
25 Moynier, G., Réminiscences, pp. 32–33 Google Scholar, ACICR, Moynier collection. Gustave Moynier did not attend the Brussels Conference of 1874.
26 ICRC, 30th circular, 20 June 1874.
27 See Annuaire cle l'lnstitut …, 1st year, 2nd part, pp. 133–138.Google Scholar
28 Gustave Moynier to Bluntschli, 7 May 1877, Zurich Central Library. Facsimile. Geneva University Library. Articles 1.5 of the Statutes of the Institute states one of its objectives as follows: To work, within the limits of its competence, either for the maintenance of peace or for the observance of the laws of war.
29 Ibid., 16 May 1877.
30 Annuaire …, 2nd year, 1878, pp. 132–137 Google Scholar. In response to the manifesto by the IIL, the Ottoman Red Crescent Society published a memorandum rejecting the allegations it contained regarding the conduct of the Turkish armed forces and declaring that from the start of hostilities the Ottoman Empire had been careful to ensure that its forces respected the laws of war. (See the Bulletin international, 9th year, 01 1878, pp. 109–112.)Google Scholar
31 Ibid., p. 136.
32 Ibid., pp. 158–159.
33 Regarding the action taken by the ICRC during the war in the Balkans, see Boissier, Pierre, History of the International Committee of the Red Cross, pp. 298–312.Google Scholar
34 ICRC, 35th circular, 21 September 1876.
35 Fifth study commission — Regulations concerning the laws and customs of war, report by Gustave Moynier. Annuaire, Vol. 3–4, 1880, t. I, pp. 312–320. In a letter of 1 December 1880. the Vice-President of the Central Committee of the Serb Red Cross informed Gustave Moynier that the Serb Government, following appeals by the Institute of International Law, had drawn up and published a manual entitled Laws of war under international law. which was given to all officers. ( Annuaire, 6th year, 1883, vol. 2, pp. 283–285 CrossRefGoogle Scholar). See also “La Guerre d'Orient et la Conférence de Bruxelles”, by Prof, de Martens. Bulletin international, 14th year, 1883, pp. 36–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
36 Present were: Bluntschli, Hall, Holland, Martens, Rivier, Schultze and Moynier.
37 Annuaire, vol. 5, 1882, p. 156.Google Scholar
38 Moynier, G., Ma contribution …, p. 26 Google Scholar. ACICR, Moynier collection.
39 Rolin, Albéric, Les origincs …, (cf. Note 4), p. 41.Google Scholar
40 Moynier, G., Réminiscences, p. 32 Google Scholar. Gustave Moynier continued to take active part in the work of the IIL. At its 1883 session in Munich he tabled a report on the Congo question at the sessions of Brussels in 1885, Heidelberg in 1887 and Lausanne in 1888; he submitted several papers on the subject of railways in wartime. He was appointed chairman of the Institute at its Geneva session in September 1892, honorary president on 26 March 1894 in Paris and honorary member on 18 August 1898 in The Hague.
41 Dameth, Le juste et l'utile, p. XIV. (Note by G.M.)
42 Rolin-Jaequemyns, , Revue de droit international, V. 463 Google Scholar. (Note by G. M.).
43 Communications et documents, p. 77 (Note by G.M.).Google Scholar
44 Moynier, G., Institute of International Law Google Scholar, Excerpt from the report of the Academie des sciences morales et politiques, Paris, Alphonse Picard, 1890. The text was read out to a gathering of the Academy by Léon Aucoc, jurist and former member of the State Council.
* The portrait of Gustave Moynier (p. 542) appears in the Annuaire of the Institute of International Law — tenth volume, 1888–1889 — Lausanne Session, September 1888. Librairie Européenne C. Muquardt, Brussels, 1889 (Bibliothèque cantonale et universitaire, Lausanne).
