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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 13 January 2010
The Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 provide that medical personnel and equipment shall in general be identified by the distinctive emblem of the red cross or red crescent. The Second Geneva Convention, applicable to the victims of conflict at sea, specifies that the exterior surfaces of hospital ships and smaller craft used for medical purposes shall be white and recommends that the parties to the conflict use “the most modern methods” to facilitate identification of medical transports at sea (Art. 43). It is also recommended that medical aircraft should be clearly marked with both the distinctive emblem and their national colours on their lower, upper and lateral surfaces. They should moreover be provided with “any other markings or means of identification” agreed upon between the belligerents from the outbreak or during the course of hostilities (First Convention, Art. 36, and Second Convention, Art. 39).
This paper reflects the author's personal views and does not engage the responsibility of the ICRC. Original: French.
1 (First) Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of 12 August 1949, Arts 35–38.
2 (Second) Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded. Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea of 12 August 1949. Arts 22. 24. 26, 27 and 43.
3 See International Review of the Red Cross (IRRC), No. 298, 01–02 1994, pp. 27–41.Google Scholar
4 Sweden for Articles 8 and 9 and Jordan for Article 2.
5 Cauderay, Gérald C., “Visibility of the distinctive emblem on medical establishments, units and transports”, IRRC, No. 277, 07–08 1990, pp. 295–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6 Art. 5, para. 2, of Annex I to Protocol I additional to the 1949 Geneva Conventions (amended version of 1993).
7 See Bundesamt für Seeschiffahrt und Hydrographie, Hamburg, results recorded under ref. No. T2110, 29 05 1992.Google Scholar
8 Article 7, Annex I to Additional Protocol I (updated version); International Code of Signals, Chap. XIV, para. 4, International Maritime Organization (IMO), London; Airworthiness Technical Manual (Doc. 9051), Part 3, Section 7, Chap. 1, para. 4, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), Montreal.
9 Thermal imaging — passive infrared: by this means, the natural or artificial electromagnetic energy emitted in the far IR band (8–12 μm) by objects is transformed into electrical signals which are then used to draw a map of the hot points on the landscape, thus forming an image which can be observed through fieldglasses or on a screen or recorded using special apparatus.
10 Art. 5, para. 3, of Annex I to Additional Protocol I.
11 Radio Regulations, Arts 40 and N40, International Telecommunication Union, Geneva.
12 Eberlin, Philippe, “Underwater acoustic identification of hospital ships”, IRRC, No. 267, 11–12 1988, pp. 505–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13 International Code of Signals, Chap. XIV, para. 5, IMO, London, 1985.Google Scholar
14 The CCIR has since been incorporate into the ITU Radiocommunication Bureau.
15 ARGOS is a satellite-based location and data collection system. It is the result of a cooperative effort between the CNES (Centre national d'études spatiales, France), NASA (National Space and Aeronautical Administration, USA) and NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, USA). ARGOS equipment is carried on board two NOAA satellites in polar circular orbit (altitude, approximately 800 km), providing complete global coverage.
16 Global Maritime Distress and Safety System, IMO, London 1987.Google Scholar
17 GPS, also known as NAVSTAR, is a satellite global navigation system developed and maintained by the US Department of Defense. Based on a constellation of satellites (18 of the planned 24 satellites are in operation), it enables the carriers of special receivers to obtain their position on land, at sea or in the air within a range of 100 m.
18 Meeting of Technical Experts with a view to possible revision of Annex I to 1977 Protocole additional to the 1949 Geneva Conventions – Geneva, 20–24 August 1990 — Comments by the United States of America concerning Articles 8 through 14.
