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3 Doherty, Charles, ‘Some aspects of hagiography as a source for Irish economic history’ in Peritia, i (1982), p. 303 Google Scholar.

4 Graham, B.J., ‘Urban genesis in early medieval Ireland’ in Journal of Historical Geography, xiii (1987), pp 3–16 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, ‘Analogy and theory: some further thoughts’, ibid., pp 61–3; idem, ‘Urbanisation in medieval Ireland, ca. A.D. 900 to ca. A.D. 1300’ in Journal of Urban History, xiii, no. 2 (Feb. 1987), pp 169–96; idem, ‘Secular urban origins in early medieval Ireland’ in Ir. Econ. & Soc. Hist., xvi (1989), pp 5–22; idem, ‘Early medieval Ireland: settlement as an indicator of social and economic transformation, c. 500–1100’ in Graham, B.J. and Proudfoot, L.J. (eds), An historical geography of Ireland (London, 1993), pp 19–57 Google Scholar.

5 Etchingham, Colmán, ‘Early medieval Irish history’ in McCone, Kim and Simms, Katharine (eds), Progress in medieval Irish studies (Maynooth, 1996), pp 137-8Google Scholar; Michael Ryan, ‘Some archaeological issues’, ibid., p. 162.

6 Stenton, F.M., Anglo-Saxon England (3rd ed., Oxford, 1971), p. 537 Google Scholar.

7 Hodges, Richard, Dark age economics: the origins of towns and trade, A.D. 600–1000 (London, 1982), p. 23 Google Scholar.

8 Ibid., p. 23.

9 Ibid., p. 47.

10 Weber, Max, ‘Die Stadt’ in Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, xlvii (1921), pp 621–772 Google Scholar. The essay was originally published as part of a larger work, most recently edited by Winckelmann, Johannes as Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft: Gundriss der Verstehenden soziologie (2 vols, Tübingen, 1956)Google Scholar; English translations are available in idem, The city, trans. Donald A. Martindale and Gertrud Neuwirth (New York, 1958; repr., New York, 1966) and more recently within a translation of the entire original work in idem, ‘The city’ in Roth, Guenther and Wittich, Claus (eds), Economy and society: an outline of interpretive sociology (New York, 1968; repr., Berkeley, 1978), pp. 1212–1372 Google Scholar.

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12 Ibid.

13 Childe, V. Gordon, ‘Urban revolution’ in Town Planning Review, xxi (1950), pp 3–17 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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15 Ibid., p. l87.

16 Redman, Charles L., The rise of civilization: from early farmers to urban society in the ancient Near East (San Francisco, 1978)Google Scholar.

17 Ibid., p. 215.

18 Wheatly, Paul, The pivot of the four quarters: a preliminary enquiry into the origins and character of the ancient Chinese city (Chicago, 1971), p. 225 Google Scholar.

19 Ibid., p. 226.

20 Thomas, Avril, The walled towns of Ireland (2 vols, Dublin, 1992), i, 6Google Scholar.

21 Butlin, ‘Urban & proto-urban settlements’, p. 22.

22 Ibid.

23 Ibid., p. 25.

24 Clarke, Howard B., ‘The topographical development of early medieval Dublin’ in R.S.A.I. Jn., cvii (1977), p. 47 Google Scholar.

25 Simms, Anngret, ‘Medieval Dublin: a topographical analysis’ in Ir. Geography, xii (1979), pp 25–41 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26 Doherty, Charles, ‘Exchange and trade in early medieval Ireland’ in R.S.A.I. Jn., cx (1980), pp 67–89 Google Scholar; idem, ‘Some aspects of hagiography’, pp 300–28; idem, ‘The monastic town in early medieval Ireland’ in H. B. Clarke and Anngret Simms (eds), The comparative history of urban origins in non-Roman Europe (Oxford, 1985), pp 45–75.

27 Wallace, Patrick F., ‘The origins of Dublin’ in Scott, B.G. (ed.), Studies on early Ireland: essays in honour of M. V. Duignan (Belfast, 1982), p. 139 Google Scholar, pointed out that there is no archaeological evidence that Armagh or any other Irish monastery was an urban community, but ten years later had come to believe that ‘In effect, the Vikings may be seen as catalysts through whom the “germ” of urbanisation was transferred from England to Ireland where it was then uniquely expressed, having been digested in a milieu where, thanks especially to the monasteries, several elements of the town were already in place’ (idem, ‘The archaeological identity of the Hiberno-Norse town’ in R.S.A.I. Jn., cxxii (1992), p. 36); Sharpe, Richard, ‘Some problems concerning the organisation of the church in early medieval Ireland’ in Peritia, iii (1984), p. 267 Google Scholar; Bradley, John, ‘The medieval towns of County Meath’ in Riocht na Midhe, viii, no. 2 (1988-9), pp 30–49 Google Scholar; Ryan, Michael, ‘Fine metalworking and early Irish monasteries: the archaeological evidence’ in Bradley, John (ed.), Settlement and society in medieval Ireland (Kilkenny, 1988), p. 33 Google Scholar; Lynn, Chris and McDowell, Jacqueline, ‘The oldest city in Ireland: Armagh’ in Hamlin, Ann and Lynn, Chris (eds), Pieces of the past: archaeological excavations by the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland, 1970–1986 (Belfast, 1988), pp 57–61 Google Scholar; Edwards, Nancy, The archaeology of early medieval Ireland (London, 1990), p. 97 Google Scholar, cites Doherty regarding a monastic óenach in A.D. 800.

28 Doherty, ‘Exchange & trade’, p. 71.

29 Doherty, ‘The monastic town’, pp 45–75.

30 Anderson, Alan Orr and Anderson, Marjorie Ogilvie (eds and trans.), Adomnán’s Life of Columba (Oxford, 1991), pp 68-9, 74–5, 96–7, 116–21, 134–7, 172–3, 196–7, 202–3, 220–21Google Scholar.

31 Hamlin, Ann, ‘The archaeology of the Irish churches in the eighth century’ in Peritia, iv (1985), pp 279–99 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

32 Manning, Conleth, ‘The excavation of the Early Christian enclosure of Killederdadrum in Lackenavorna, Co. Tipperary’ in R.I.A. Proc., lxxxiv (1984), sect. C, pp 237-68Google Scholar; Brannon, N.F., ‘Life and death at an early monastery: Cathedral Hill, Downpatrick, Co. Down’ in Hamlin, & Lynn, (eds), Pieces of the past, pp 61-4Google Scholar.

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34 Fanning, Thomas, ‘Excavations at Reask, Co. Kerry’ in Kerry Arch. Soc. Jn., vi (1973), pp 5–8 Google Scholar; idem, ‘Excavations at Reask, Co. Kerry: preliminary report — seasons 1973–5’ in Kerry Arch. Soc. Jn., viii (1975), pp 5–10; idem, ‘Excavations of an Early Christian cemetery and settlement at Reask, County Kerry’ in R.I.A. Proc., lxxxi (1981), sect. C, pp 67–172.

35 Yates, M.J., ‘Preliminary excavations at Movilla Abbey, County Down, 1980’ in U.J.A., 3rd ser., xlvi (1983), pp 53–66 Google Scholar; Ivens, Richard J., ‘Movilla Abbey, Newtownards, County Down: excavations 1981’ in U.J.A., 3rd ser., xlvii (1984), pp 71–108 Google Scholar; idem, ‘Saints, scholars and smiths: Movilla Abbey, Co. Down’ in Hamlin & Lynn (eds), Pieces of the past, pp 50–52; idem, ‘The Early Christian monastic enclosure at Tullylish, Co. Down’ in U.J.A., 3rd ser., 1 (1987), pp 55–121; idem, ‘Around an early church: Tullylish, Co. Down’ in Hamlin & Lynn (eds), Pieces of the past, pp 55–6.

36 Gaskell-Brown, Cynthia and Harper, A.E.T., ‘Excavations on Cathedral Hill, Armagh, 1968’ in U.J.A., 3rd ser., xlvii (1984), pp 109-61Google Scholar; King, Heather, ‘Excavations at Clonmacnois’ in Archaeology Ireland, vi, no. 3 (autumn 1992), pp 12–14 Google Scholar: Yates, ‘Preliminary excavations at Movilla Abbey’, pp 53–66; Ivens, ‘Movilla Abbey’, pp 71–108; idem, ‘Saints, scholars & smiths’, pp 50–52; Ivens, ‘Tullylish, Co. Down’, pp 55–121; idem, ‘Around an early church’, pp 55–6; Fanning, ‘Excavations at Reask, Co. Kerry (1973), pp 5–8; idem, ‘Excavations at Reask, Co. Kerry: preliminary report — seasons 1973–5’, pp 5–10; idem, ‘Excavations of an Early Christian cemetery and settlement’, pp 67–172; Swan, ‘Excavations at Kilpatrick’, pp 1–21.

37 Lucas, A.T., ‘Irish-Norse relations: time for a reappraisal?’ in Cork Hist. Soc. Jn., lxxi (1966), pp 62–75 Google Scholar; idem, ‘The plundering and burning of churches in Ireland, 7th to 16th century’ in Etienne Rynne (ed.), North Munster studies (Limerick, 1967), pp 172–229.

38 Doherty, ‘Some aspects of hagiography’, pp 300–28.

39 See, for example, the Addamienta in Bieler, Ludwig (ed. and trans.), The Patrician texts in the Book of Armagh (Dublin, 1979), pp 166–179 Google Scholar.

40 Meyer, Kuno (ed. and trans.), Cáin Adamnáin: an Old-Irish treatise on the Law of Adamnan (Oxford, 1905), esp. pp 24-9Google Scholar.

41 Donnchadh Ó Corráin on a number of occasions, including, ‘The historical and cultural background of the Book of Kells’ in O’Mahony, Felicity (ed.), The Book of Kells: proceedings of a conference at Trinity College, Dublin, 6–9 September, 1992 (Dublin, 1994), pp 1–32 Google Scholar, and ‘Early Irish churches’ in Corráin, Donnchadh Ó (ed.), Irish antiquity (Dublin, 1981), pp 327-11Google Scholar, refers to ‘bustling towns’ after the seventh century. See also Paor, Liam de, ‘The Viking towns of Ireland’ in Almqvist, Bo and Greene, David (eds), Proceedings of the Seventh Viking Congress (Dublin, 1976), p. 29 Google Scholar; Hughes, Kathleen, Early Christian Ireland: introduction to the sources (Cambridge, 1972), p. 228 Google Scholar.

42 For the Latin see Acta SS, 1 February (Antwerp & Brussels, 1658), pp 135–41; the edition in Colgan, John (ed.), Trias thaumaturga (Louvain, 1647), pp 518–26 Google Scholar, is far less reliable.

43 Connolly, Sean and Picard, Jean-Michel, ‘Cogitosus: Life of St Brigit ’ in R.S.A.I. J., cxvii (1987), p. 26 Google Scholar.

44 MacDonald, A.D.S., ‘Notes on terminology in the Annals of Ulster, 650–1050’ in Peritia, i (1982), pp 329-33CrossRefGoogle Scholar, demonstrates that from the eighth through the twelfth century, the term civitas is used exclusively for episcopal sees, and not for ceremonial sites such as Tara or urban sites such as Dublin. Although there is less Latin used in the Annals of Inisfallen, the same holds true. A thorough examination of the texts included to date in Harvey, Anthony, Devine, Kieran and Smith, Francis J. (eds), Archive of Celtic-Latin literature: Royal Irish Academy dictionary of medieval Latin from Celtic sources (Turnhout, 1994)Google Scholar makes it clear that this was the case in other written sources as well: civitas was used by the Irish to refer to a place with a bishop, whether that place was urban (as in the case of Rome or Jerusalem) or not (as in the case of Iona), although a few Biblical place-names, such as Sodom and Gomorrah, are occasionally referred to as civitates.

45 Regarding the population of a monastery, compare, for example, Bede, who said that there were less than 800 monks living at the double monastery of Monkwearmouth and Jarrow in his day ( Plummer, Charles (ed.), ‘Historia abbatum auctore Baeda’ in Venerabilis Bedae opera historica (2 vols, Oxford, 1896), i, 368Google Scholar).

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48 Bradley, John, ‘Excavations at Moynagh Lough, 1984: summary report’ in Ríocht na Midhe, vii, no. 4 (1985-6), pp 79–92 Google Scholar; King, Heather A., ‘Clonmacnoise’ in Bennett, Isabel (ed.), Excavations 1993. summary accounts of archaeological excavations in Ireland (Bray, 1994), p. 67 Google Scholar.

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51 Gwynn, E.J. and Purton, W.J., ‘The monastery of Tallaght’ in R.I.A. Proc, xxix (1911-12), sect. C, pp 115-79Google Scholar.

52 Binchy, D.A., ‘The fair of Tailtiu and the feast of Tara’ in Ériu, xviii (1958), pp 113-38Google Scholar; Byrne, F.J., Irish kings and high-kings (London, 1973), pp 30–31 Google Scholar.

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54 Ann. Inisf., s.a. 716; A.U., s.aa 777, 789.

55 Wooding, Jonathan, Communication and commerce along the western sealanes, A.D. 400–800, B.A.R. International Series, 654 (Oxford, 1996), pp 87-8Google Scholar.

56 Edwards, Archaeology of early medieval Ireland, pp 68–71.

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60 Wooding, Communication & commerce,, pp 70–78.

61 Meyer, Kuno (ed.), Tecosca Cormaic, Todd Lecture Series, 15 (Dublin, 1909), pp 2–3 Google Scholar.

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63 Ibid., p. 81.

64 Royal Irish Academy, Dictionary of the Irish language based mainly on Old and Middle Irish materials (Dublin, 1983), p. 103 Google Scholar.

65 See Niermeyer, J.F., Media Latinitatis lexicon minus (Leiden, 1976)Google Scholar and Lewis, and Short, ’s Latin dictionary (Oxford, 1879)Google Scholar. I have again consulted the Archive of Celtic-Latin literature (above, n. 44), and not one entry for circius can remotely be considered ‘fair’ or ‘festival’ or óenach.

66 Meyer, Kuno (ed.), The Triads of Ireland, Todd Lecture Series, 13 (Dublin, 1906), p. 5 Google Scholar.

67 Stokes, Whitley (ed. and trans.), Tripartite Life of St Patrick (2 vols, Rolls Series, London, 1887), i, 238-9Google Scholar.

68 Ann. Inisf., s.a. 1275.

69 King, Heather A., ‘Clonmacnoise’ in Bennett, Isabel (ed.), Excavations 1994: summary accounts of archaeological excavations in Ireland (Bray, 1995), p. 74 Google Scholar.

70 Doherty, ‘Exchange & trade’, pp 82–3.

71 Ibid., p 84; see also Duffy, Seán, ‘Irishmen and islesmen in the kingdoms of Dublin and Man, 1052–1171’ in Ériu, xliii (1992), pp 93–133 Google Scholar; idem, ‘Pre-Norman Dublin: capital of Ireland?’ in History Ireland, i (winter 1993), pp 13–18; idem, ‘Ostmen, Irish and Welsh in the eleventh century’ in Peritia, ix (1995), pp 378–96.

72 A.U., s.a. 1097.

73 Doherty, ‘Exchange & trade’, p. 83.

74 Ryan, Michael, ‘An Early Christian hoard from Derrynaflan, Co. Tipperary’ in N. Munster Antiq. Jn., xxii (1980), pp 9–26 Google Scholar; idem (ed.), The Derrynaflan hoard, I: a preliminary account (Dublin, 1983), pp 46–9; idem, ‘Fine metalworking’, pp 33–48; idem, ‘Church metalwork in the eighth and ninth centuries’ in Susan Youngs (ed.), The work of angels (Austin, 1989), pp 125–30.

75 Hamlin, ‘Archaeology of the Irish churches’, pp 279–99.

76 C.I.H., 777.6-783.38; 563.1-570.32; MacNeill, ‘Ancient law’, pp 265–316; see also Ancient laws of Ireland (6 vols, Dublin, 1865–1901), iv, 299–339. Translation kindly provided by Professor Fergus Kelly.

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78 Hencken, Hugh, ‘Lagore crannog: an Irish royal residence of the 7th to 10th centuries A.D.’ in R.I.A. Proc., liii (1950-51), sect. C, pp 1–247 Google Scholar; Bradley, John, ‘Excavations at Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath 1980–1: interim report’ in Ríocht na Midhe, vii, no. 2 (1982-3), pp 12–32 Google Scholar; idem, ‘Excavations at Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath, 1982–83: interim report’ in Ríocht na Midhe, vii, no. 3 (1984), pp 86–93; idem, ‘Excavations at Moynagh Lough, County Meath’ in R.S.A.I. Jn., cxx (1990), pp 5–26.

79 Edwards, Archaeology of early medieval Ireland, p. 96.

80 Richard J. Ivens, ‘Secrets of a hilltop: Dunmisk, Co. Tyrone’ in Hamłin & Lynn (eds), Pieces of the past, pp 27–9; Henderson, Julian, ‘The nature of the Early Christian glass industry in Ireland: some evidence from Dunmisk Fort, Co. Tyrone’ in U.J.A., 3rd ser., li (1988), pp 115-26Google Scholar; Ivens, Richard J., ‘Dunmisk Fort, Carrickmore, Co. Tyrone: excavations 1984–1986’ in U.J.A., 3rd ser., lii (1989), pp 17–110 Google Scholar.

81 Edwards, Archaeology of early medieval Ireland, pp 96–8, would argue for England as a source, but Bede claimed that there were few skilled glass-workers in Anglo-Saxon England and that they had to be brought from Gaul to build Jarrow (see Plummer (ed.), ‘Historia abbatum’, p. 368).

82 Graham, ‘Early medieval Ireland’, p. 29; see also Corráin, Donncha Ó, Ireland before the Normans (Dublin, 1972), p. 37 Google Scholar.

83 Flanagan, Marie Therese, ‘Strategies of lordship in pre- and post-Norman Leinster’ in Anglo-Norman studies: proceedings of the Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies, xx (1997), pp 107–26 Google Scholar.

84 Bradley, John, ‘Town life in medieval Ireland’ in Archaeology Ireland, v, no. 3 (autumn 1991), pp 25-8Google Scholar; idem, Walled towns in Ireland (Dublin, 1995).

85 Lucas, ‘Plundering & burning of churches’, pp 205–8.

86 Graham, ‘Early medieval Ireland’, p. 35.

87 See Shamhráin, Ailbhe Séamus Mac, Church and polity in pre-Norman Ireland: the case of Glendalough, Maynooth Monographs, 7 (Maynooth, 1996), pp xx–xxi Google Scholar. (In an entire book about Glendalough before 1169 the author devotes only one paragraph to discussion of industry and commerce.)

88 Graham, ‘Early medieval Ireland’, pp 27–8.

89 Moore, Fionnbarr, ‘Ireland’s oldest bridge — at Clonmacnoise’ in Archaeology Ireland, x, no. 4 (winter 1996), pp 24-7Google Scholar.

90 King, ‘Excavations at Clonmacnois’, pp 12–14.

91 Doherty, ‘Some aspects of hagiography’, p. 303; see Chron. Scot, s.a. 1130, and Ann. Tig., s.a. 1134.

92 While Killaloe was unlikely to have been a town as he has suggested, see Bradley, John, ‘Killaloe: a pre-Norman borough?’ in Peritia, viii (1994), pp 170-79Google Scholar, for a discussion of involvement by the Uí Briain family in trade in the twelfth century. Muirchertach Ua Briain was king of Munster in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries (see A.U., s.a. 1090).

93 Simms, Anngret with Simms, Katharine, Kells, Irish Historic Towns Atlas, 4, ed. Andrews, J.H. and Simms, Anngret (Dublin, 1990), p. 2 Google Scholar.

94 Swan, D. Leo, ‘Monastic proto-towns in early medieval Ireland’ in Clarke, H.B. and Simms, Anngret (eds), The comparative history of urban origins in non-Roman Europe, B.A.R. International Series, 255 (Oxford, 1985), pp 99–101 Google Scholar.

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97 See Andrews, J.H., Kildare, Irish Historic Towns Atlas, 1, ed. Andrews, J.H and Simms, Anngret (Dublin, 1986), p. 2 Google Scholar.

98 Gaskell-Brown & Harper, ‘Excavations on Cathedral Hill’, pp 109–61.

99 Lynn & McDowell, ‘The oldest city in Ireland’, pp 57–61; see A. U., s.a. 1090.

100 Acta SS, 2 November (Brussels, 1894), p. 144. Bernard only uses the term civitatus when referring to a monastery; see, for example, ‘in civitate Ardmacha’ (p. 144), ‘hoc enim nomen civitatis’ and ‘destrui civitatem a rege’, both referring to Connor (pp 149, 150), ‘in civitate Culratim’ (Coleraine, p. 157), and ‘in civitate cui nomen Oenthreb’ (Antrim, p. 158); the royal seat at Cashel is called an urbs (p. 158), and rural communities are called vici, as above, or oppidae, as on p. 150.

101 Thomas, Walled towns of Ireland, ii, 222.

102 See Proudfoot, Bruce, ‘Excavations at the Cathedral Hill, Downpatrick, Co. Down’ in U.J.A., 3rd ser., xvii (1954), pp 97–102 Google Scholar; idem, ‘Excavations at the Cathedral Hill, Downpatrick, Co. Down: preliminary report on excavations in 1954’ in U.J.A., 3rd ser., xix (1956), pp 57–72; see also Brannon, ‘Life and death at an early monastery’, pp 61–4.

103 Scott, A.B. and Martin, F.X. (eds), Expugnatio Hibernica: the conquest of Ireland by Giraldus Cambrensis, A New History of Ireland Ancillary Publications, 3 (Dublin, 1978), pp 174-9Google Scholar; Thomas, Walled towns of Ireland, ii, 70.

104 There is one ninth-century reference, but that is only to a Viking raid in the ‘caves’ at Drogheda (A.F.M., s.a. 861).

105 Thomas, Walled towns of Ireland, ii, 74, 146.

106 Graham, ‘Urbanisation in medieval Ireland’, p. 185.

107 Scott & Martin (eds), Expugnatio Hibernica, pp 88–9; see also Orpen, G.H. (ed. and trans.), The song of Dermot and the earl: an old French poem about the coming of the Normans to Ireland (Oxford, 1892; repr., Llanerch, 1994), ll 2585-654, 2902–5, 3040–182Google Scholar.

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