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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 July 2016
The six months following the Anglo-Irish treaty of 1921 saw an appalling level of violence in Belfast and on the border, which threatened the stability of the newly formed Northern Ireland government. Official figures for the period between 6 December 1921 and 31 May 1922 listed seventy-three protestants and 147 catholics killed in Belfast and eight protestants and twenty-two catholics killed in the six counties outside Belfast. In that period two wide-ranging agreements aimed to reform the northern government and security system: they became known, somewhat inaccurately, as the Craig-Collins pacts, of 21 January and 30 March 1922. This article discusses the motivation behind the pacts and the reasons for their failure in a wide context, by giving equal weight to the attitudes of the British government and to opinion on both sides of the Irish border.
The Northern Ireland government was established in 1920–21. It was unrecognised by the dáil government in the south and by much of the northern catholic minority. The province developed against a background of violence and upheaval, including the expulsion of catholic shipyard workers from their work in the summer of 1920; the dáil retaliated by boycotting Belfast goods. The period also saw increasing I.R.A. activity in the north during the latter stages of the Anglo-Irish war, and the five-month truce that followed it. Though the northern government was not a party to the treaty negotiations, only reluctantly accepting the granting of dominion status to the south, the months before and after the settlement greatly increased tensions in the north-east.
1 Note on situation in Ireland; casualty figures, 6 Dec. 1921 — 31 May 1922 (Public Record Office [London] (hereafter PRO), CO 906/30).
2 For this background see Buckland, Patrick, A history of northern Ireland (Dublin, 1981)Google Scholar; Buckland, Patrick, The factory of grievances: devolved government in Northern Ireland 1921–39 (Dublin, 1979)Google Scholar; Hopkinson, Michael, Green against green: the Irish civil war (Dublin, 1988)Google Scholar; Curran, J.M., The birth of the Irish Free State, 1921–1923 (Alabama, 1980)Google Scholar; Irish boundary commission: report and documents, introduction by Hand, Geoffrey (Shannon, 1969)Google Scholar.
3 Craig to Lloyd George, 14 Dec. 1921 (P.R.O.N.I., CAB 92/3/1).
4 See memorandum on ‘Present position of imperial government in Northern Ireland’ by Thomas Jones and Lionel Curtis, 18 Mar. 1922 (PRO: CO 739/4); Otto Niemeyer, treasury memorandum on Ulster specials, 23 Jan. 1922 (PRO: T 163/4/G256/08).
5 See Craig to Austen Chamberlain, 15 Dec. 1921 (PRO: CO 906/30).
6 Churchill to Craig, 13 Feb. 1922 (PRO: CO 739/4).
7 Craig to Devonshire, 6 Nov. 1922 (PRO: CO 739/1).
8 Provisional government minutes for first six months of 1921 (National Archives [Ireland] (hereafter NAI), SPO, Gl/1, Gl/2), and Hopkinson, Green against green, pp 52–114.
9 For Churchill’s role, Gilbert, Martin, Winston S. Churchill, iv: 1916–1922 (London, 1975), p. 686 Google Scholar.
10 For the agreement’s terms, NAI, SPO, S 1801; provisional government minutes, 23 Jan. 1922 (NAI, SPO, Gl/1); Craig’s account to northern cabinet, 26 Jan. 1922 (P.R.O.N.I., CAB 4/30/1). Notes by Collins on the pact (NAI, SPO, North-east boundary bureau, box 1).
11 British cabinet conclusions, 23 Jan. 1922 (PRO: CAB 23/29).
12 Cork Examiner, 23 Jan. 1922.
13 Cork Examiner, 27 Jan.; notes by Collins on the pact.
14 Craig’s account to northern cabinet, 26 Jan. 1922.
15 Cork Examiner, 28 Jan. 1922.
16 Irish Times, 2 Feb. 1922.
17 Provisional government minutes for 30 Jan. and 1 Feb. 1922 (NAI, SPO, Gl/1).
18 Thomas Jones’ diary, 29 Nov. 1925 ( Jones, , Whitehall diary, iii, ed. Middlemas, Keith (Oxford, 1971), pp 241, 242)Google Scholar.
19 Provisional government minutes for 2 Feb. 1922 (NAI, SPO, Gl/1); Irish Times, 3, 6 Feb.
20 Gilbert, , Churchill, iv, 688 Google Scholar.
21 Irish Times, 4 Feb. 1922.
22 Irish Free State report on 1922 northern developments, not dated (FitzGerald papers, U.C.D. archives); detailed correspondence between British government and both Irish governments (PRO: CO 906/20); Eoin O’Duffy to Collins, 30 Jan. 1922 (NAI, SPO, North-east boundary bureau, box 1).
23 Irish Free State report (FitzGerald papers).
24 Macready to chief of imperial general staff, 16 Feb. 1922; Churchill to Craig, 14 Feb. 1922 (PRO: CO 739/4); Churchill to Craig, 14 Feb. 1922 (CO 906/20); Macready, C.F.N., Annals of an active life (2 vols, London 1924), ii, 622–4Google Scholar.
25 Churchill to Collins, 24 Mar. 1922 (PRO: CO 906/20); P.G.I, conclusions, 20 Mar. 1922 (CO 739/4); Farrell, Michael, Arming the protestants (London and Dingle, 1983), pp 96, 100Google Scholar.
26 Churchill to Collins and Duggan, 11 Feb. 1922, Churchill to Craig, 16 Feb. 1922 (PRO: CO 906/20); Churchill to Collins, 14 Mar. 1922 (CO 739/14).
27 P.G.I. committee meeting (PRO: CO 739/4); Churchill to Collins, 24 Mar. 1922 (CO 906/20).
28 Curtis to Cope, 26 Mar. 1922 (PRO: CO 906/20), Churchill to Collins, 14 Mar. 1922 (CO 739/14).
29 British cabinet meeting, 8 Mar. 1922 (PRO: CAB 43/1).
30 First meeting of conference, 29 Mar. (PRO: CAB 43/5); Irish conference minutes (CO 739/5).
31 For text of the pact, PRO: CO 906/30, and for analysis of it, Boyle, Kevin, ‘The Tallents report on the Craig-Collins pact of 30 March 1922’ in Ir. Jurist, xii (1977) pp 148-75Google Scholar.
32 For examples of favourable response, Irish Times and Times, 31 Mar. 1922; Irish News, 31 Mar. 1922; Gilbert, , Churchill, iv, 702 Google Scholar.
33 Chart showing the number of outrages committed in each month since Nov. 1921 (P.R.O.N.I., CAB 6/11).
34 Irish Free State report on 1922 northern developments (FitzGerald papers, U.C.D. archives); Sean Lehané to secretary of military service pensions board, 7 Mar. 1935 (O’Malley notebooks, U.C.D. archives, P17B/108); Hopkinson, Green against green, pp 83–6.
35 Craig to Churchill, 23 May 1922 (PRO: CO 906/20); Macready report for week ending 27 May 1922 (PRO: CAB 24/137); Seamus Woods (O.C. 3rd Northern division) report on No. 1 (Belfast) brigade (Mulcahy papers, U.C.D. archives, P7/B/77); Woods memorandum, 27 July 1922 (Mulcahy papers, U.C.D. archives, P7/B/1).
36 Collins to Craig, 11 Apr. 1922 (PRO: CO 906/29); Collins to Churchill, 20 Apr. 1922, Collins to Craig, 22 Apr., Craig to Collins, 15 Apr. 1922 (CO 739/14).
37 For examples of Collins-Craig-Churchill correspondence, Collins to Churchill. 20 Apr. 1922; Churchill to Collins, 23 Apr.; Collins to Craig, and Collins to Churchill, 27 Apr.; Craig to Churchill, 15 May 1922 (PRO: CO 739/14); Churchill at 30 May cabinet meeting (PRO: CAB 23/30).
38 F. Crummey to Collins, 17 May 1922 (NAI, SPO, North-east boundary bureau, box 1). Tallente’ report on the agreement of 30 March and Tallents to James Masterton-Smith, 4 July 1922 (PRO: CO 739/16); minutes of 7 and 31 May meetings and S. Watt to Spender, 27 June 1922 (CO 906/23); Tallents’ notes on conversation with ‘B’, 21 June 1922 (CO 906/26). 11 April meeting of North-east Ulster advisory committee (NAI, SPO S 1011).
39 Tallents’ report (PRO: CO 739/16); meeting of Dougal, Raymond A. Burke and W. M. Hughes with Churchill (CO 906/25); notes of Tallents’ interview with General Ricardo (CO 906/27), and Tallents’ interview with Lt-col. Wickham, 23 June 1922 (CO 906/26).
40 Tallents’ report (PRO: CO 739/16). Craig to Collins, 12 Apr. 1922 (CO 906/29); Collins to Churchill, 26 Apr. 1922 (CO 906/29). For northern cabinet decision, CO 906/23. Spender to joint honorary secretaries of conciliation committee, 20 Apr. 1922 (P.R.O.N.I., CAB 6/12).
41 Note on situation in Ireland, 6 Dec. 1921 to 31 May 1922 (PRO: CO 906/30); Tallents’ report (CO 739/16); list of schemes approved, J.A. Dale to Masterton-Smith, 15 June 1922; memorandum on problems over Collins and his White Cross nominees; minutes of committee’s 23 June meeting; Andrews to Craig, 17 May 1922, and Andrews to Craig, 5 May 1922 (CO 906/23).
42 Tallents’ report (PRO: CO 739/16); Bates to northern cabinet (CO 906/23); Tallents’ comments in his notes (CO 906/24); Bates to conciliation committee, 13 Apr. 1922 (CO 906/23); S. Watt to Spender, 27 June 1922 (CO 906/23).
43 British cabinet meeting, 30 May 1922 (PRO: CAB 23/30); Macready report for week ending 29 Apr. and Colonel Brind report for 20 May 1922 (PRO: CAB 24/134).
44 Conference of British and Irish ministers, 10 June 1922 (PRO: CAB 43/6); meeting of British signatories of treaty, 9 June (CAB 43/7); minutes of meeting at 10 Downing Street, 16 June 1922 (CO 906/26); Churchill to Craig, 10 June 1922 (CO 906/29); meeting of British signatories to treaty, 16 June (CAB 43/7); Bates to Craig, 15 June 1922 (CO 900/29). Tallents’ report and Tallents to Masterton Smith, 4 July 1922 (CO 739/16); Hopkinson, Green against green, p. 248.
45 Tallents’ report (PRO: CO 739/16); Tallents’ notes (CO 906/24); Hansard N.I. (commons), ii, 308–46 (4 Apr. 1922).
46 Craig’s address to Ulster businessmen’s meeting, 3 Apr. 1922 (PRO: CO 906/23).
47 Tallents’ notes (PRO: CO 906/24); Tallente to Masterton-Smith, 4 July 1922 (CO 739/16); Craig to Collins, 25 Apr. (CO 906/29).
48 Message from Solly-Flood, 27 June 1922 (PRO: CO 906/23); W.B. Spender to Tallents, 29 June 1922 (CO 906/23); Craig, in Hansard N.I. (commons), ii, 598 (23 May 1922)Google Scholar and PRO: CO 906/26.
49 Meeting of North-east Ulster advisory committee, 11 Apr. 1922 (NAI, SPO, S 1011); note on situation in Northern Ireland (PRO: CO 906/30); Churchill’s meeting with Burke, Dougal, and Hughes (CO 906/25). For Collins’ appointments to committees, Watt to Spender, 27 June 1922 (CO 906/23).
50 North-east Ulster advisory committee meetings of 11 Apr. and 15 May 1922, including memo by Kevin O’Shiel (NAI, SPO, S 1011).
51 Churchill to Craig, 6 July 1922 (PRO: CO 739/14); Churchill to Collins, 7 July 1922, in Gilbert, , Churchill, iv, 743 Google Scholar.
52 British cabinet meeting, 30 May 1922 (PRO: CAB 23/30).
53 Kevin O’Shiel’s report on visit by Hugh A. McCarthy to S. and E. Down, 14 Apr. 1922 (Kennedy papers, U.C.D. archives, P4/v/2, P4/4L1/6).
54 Tallents’ report (PRO: CO 739/16).
55 For changed southern policy towards the north, memo by Ernest Blythe (Blythe papers, U.C.D. archives, P24/70). For northern government attitudes during the civil war, Cosgrave to Devonshire, 10 Jan. 1923 (PRO: CO 739/17); Buckland, Factory of grievances, pp 206, 207, 231, 232; and review of Captain Heuston case and correspondence on it, 22–6 Dec. 1922 (PRO: CO 739/1).
56 Boundary conference notes for meeting of 1 and 2 Feb. 1924 (P.R.O.N.I., CAB 92/6).
