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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 04 July 2014
Issues such as prison overcrowding, a growing realization that prisons cannot rehabilitate, and the belief that many inmates could be adequately managed in less intrusive and costly settings, have led Israeli scholars and practitioners, in the last four decades, to devote efforts to the development of alternative sanctions to imprisonment. Specifically, the focus has been on the development and elaboration of alternative sanctions that match the severity of punishment to the seriousness of the crime.
Intermediate sanctions (also called “alternative sanctions,” “alternatives to imprisonment,” or “community-based sanctions”) have been proposed as “ways to manage the burgeoning numbers of offenders without sacrificing public safety.” These punishment options are considered to fall on a continuum between traditional probation supervision and traditional incarceration.
1 Morris, Norval and Tonry, Michael, Between Prison and Probation: Intermediate Punishments in a Rational Sentencing System (NY, Oxford University Press, 1990)Google Scholar.
2 Einat, Tomer, “How Effective is Criminal Fine Enforcement in the Israeli Criminal Justice System?” (1999) 33 Is.L.Rev. 323–338Google Scholar; Sebba, Leslie, “Sanctioning Policy in Israel – An Historical Overview,” (1996) 30 Is.L.Rev. 234–275CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
3 Rattner, Arye and Fishman, Gideon, “Crime Victimization and Sentencing Issues in Israel: Criminological Research,” (1997) 13 (1) Journal of Quantitative Criminology 1–92Google Scholar; Sebba, supra n. 2. An additional factor in the development of the new sanction was the need to revise or replace an anomalous sanction surviving from the Mandatory period whereby short-term prisoners, sentenced to terms of up to three months imprisonment could apply to the local commander of police for permission to serve their sentences by presenting themselves, on a daily basis, at a local police station. This system, which tended to be used mainly by white-collar offenders, was criticized both on pragmatic and ideological grounds; see Pugatsch, N. and Tousson, Z., “Penal Labor as an Alternative to Short Prison Terms,” (1981) 9 Crime and Social Deviance 102–110Google Scholar, and the explanatory note to the draft legislative amendment, and it was sought to adopt a more comprehensive scheme in its stead.
4 MacKenzie, Doris Layton and Souryal, Claire, “A Machiavellian Perspective on the Development of Boot Camp Prisons: A Debate,” (1995) 2 Roundtable 435–453Google Scholar.
5 See N. Morris and M. Tonry, supra n. 1.
6 While the suspended sentence contributed substantially to the reduction of the prison population ((Sebba, Leslie, “Penal Reform and Court Practice: The Case of the Suspended Sentence,” in Drapkin, Israel (ed.), Scripta Hierosolymitana 21: Studies in Criminology. (Jerusalem, Magnes Press, 1969) 138–170)Google Scholar, the contribution of the other alternatives seems to be relatively marginal. Since 1967 Israeli prisons experienced a large increase in the number of prisoners. By the end of 2001 there were some 10,600 prisoners (Israeli Prison Service, 2002) – compared with less than 4000 prisoners held in Israeli prisons in 1965 (Central Bureau of Statistics, 1968).
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9 See L. Sebba, supra n. 6.
10 Cohen, Eden, and Lazar claimed some beneficial results for probation as compared with imprisonment – perhaps lending support to the claim by Palmer and others that some interventions may be more beneficial than others at least for some offenders. Cohen, Ben-Zion, Eden, Ruth, and Lazar, Amnon, “The Efficacy of Probation versus Imprisonment in Reducing Recidivism of Serious Offenders in Israel,” (1991) 19 Journal of Criminal Justice 263–270CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Palmer, Ted, The Re-emergence of Correctional Intervention (New Bury Park, CA, Sage Publications, 1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
11 See T. Einat, supra n. 7; Taxman, F., “Correctional Options and Implementation Issues: Results from a Survey of Correctional Professionals,” (1994) 18 Perspectives 32Google Scholar.
12 See T. Einat, supra n. 7.
13 See F. Taxman, supra 11; Austin, James and Krisberg, Barry, “Incarceration in the United-States: The Extent and Future of the Problem,” (1985) 478 The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 15–30Google Scholar.
14 See L. Sebba, supra n. 2; see D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 4.
15 Palumbo, Dennis, Clifford, Mary, and Snyder-Joy, Zoann, “From Net-widening to Intermediate Sanctions: The Transformation of Alternatives to Incarceration from Benevolence to Malevolence,” in Byrne, James M., Lurigio, Arthur J., and Petersilia, Joan (eds.), Smart Sentencing: The Emergence of Intermediate Sanctions (Newbury Park, London, and New Delhi, Sage Publications, 1992) 145–173Google Scholar.
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17 See. D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 4; See F. Taxman, supra n. 11.
18 MacKenzie, Doris Layton and Piquero, Alex, “The Impact of Shock Incarceration Programs on Prison Crowding,” (1994) 40 (2) Crime and Delinquency 222CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
19 MacKenzie, Doris Layton and Donaldson, Heidi, “Boot Camps for Women Offenders” (1996) 21 (1) Criminal Justice Review 21–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Zachariah, John K., An Overview of Boot Camp Goals, Components, and Results (Washington, National Institute of Justice, 1996)Google Scholar; Burns, Jerald C. and Vito, Gennaro F., “An Impact Analysis of the Alabama Boot Camp Program,” (1995) 59 Federal Probation 63–67Google Scholar.
20 See, F. Taxman, supra n. 11.
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22 MacKenzie, Doris Layton, Wilson, David B., and Kider, Suzanne B., “Research Findings from Prevention and Intervention Studies: Effects of Correctional Boot Camps on Offending,” (2001) 126 The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 126–143CrossRefGoogle Scholar; See D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 4.
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25 See D. MacKenzie and H. Donaldson, supra n. 19.
26 Stinchcomb, Jeanne B. and Terry, W. Clinton, “Predicting the Likelihood of Rearrest among Shock Incarceration Graduates: Moving Beyond Another Nail in the Boot Camp Coffin,” (2001) 47 (2) Crime & Delinquency 221–243CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
27 MacKenzie, Doris Layton and Hebert, Eugene, “Correctional Boot Camps: A Tbugh Intermediate Sanction (Washington, National Institute of Justice, 1996)Google Scholar.
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29 See L. Sebba, supra n. 2.
30 See R. Kannai, supra n. 28.
31 See L. Sebba, supra n. 2.
32 For example: penalties related to drug policy have risen from a 10-year maximum term of imprisonment in 1948 for most offenses, to maximum 20 years since 1989.
33 Hutton, Neil and Tata, Cyrus, Sentencing and Society: International Perspectives (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2001)Google Scholar; Frankel, Marvin E., “The Quest for Equality in Sentencing,” (1991) 25 Is. L. R. 595–606CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
34 See L. Sebba, supra. n. 2.
35 Mandatory penalties in the Israeli Judicial System are very rare and focus, mainly, on severe sex crimes and traffic offenses; Weisman, Gabi, “Preventing Violence in the Family: An Overview of Israel's New Legislation,” (1993) 4 Current Issues in Criminal Justice 266–272Google Scholar.
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39 The priority for release depends on the term of the sentence and the time to serve. See L. Sebba, supra n. 2.
40 The Israeli law also permits death penalty in two cases: offenses against humanity and against the Jewish people committed by the Nazis and their abettors, and treason in war time. The death penalty has been imposed only once in the history of the state, against Adolph Eichmann; Einat, Tomer, “Criminal Fine Enforcement In Israel: Administration, Policy, Evaluation, and Recommendations,” (2002) 19 Law Studies 167–204Google Scholar.
41 “It was originally estimated that a single prison with a capacity for 120 prisoners would serve the nation's needs; but by 1970 Israel's prisons population had risen to nearly 2000, by 1981 to nearly 6000” and by 2002 to more than 10,000 (Israel Prison Service Annual Report, 2002; Leslie Sebba, 1996, 258).
42 Data in Tables 1 and 2 are based on the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics, 2001 and 2000.
43 The Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics does not present statistics regarding convictions in which specific penalties other than imprisonment, suspended sentence and fine were imposed as well as the imposition of “other” sanctions in the year 2000. The general term “others” used by the Israeli CBS refers to probation, community service and service work.
44 Each type of penalty is defined, by the Israeli Bureau of Statistics, as the major penalty that was imposed by the court, although it may include combinations with other penalties.
45 Data is based on the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics, 2001.
46 Eric Schnurer and Charles Lyons, “CNP Stateline: Turning Chronic Juvenile Offenders into Productive Citizens,” (Paper presented at the CNP conference, Pennsylvania, 2000) 3.
47 Data are based on the Israeli Prison Service Statistics, 2000. Although these findings lack any data regarding the percent of first-time adult inmates who were convicted for non-violent and/or minor offenses, it indicates that their ratio out of the entire inmate population is extensive.
48 Van-Kalmthout, Anton M. and Tak, Peter, Sanctions-systems in the Member-states of the Council of Europe (Antwerp, Kluwer, 1988)Google Scholar.
49 The IPS budget is composed of salaries, development, medical care, work, education, clothes and groceries, civilian manpower, provisions, electricity, water, security, and religious goods: Israeli Prison Service Review, 1999.
50 See D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 4, at 439; see F. Taxman, supra n. 11.
51 See D. MacKenzie and A. Piquero, supra n. 18.
52 See D. MacKenzie and E. Hebert, supra n. 27.
53 See D. MacKenzie, D. Wilson, D. Styve, and A. Gover, supra n. 21.
54 See J. B. Stinchcomb and W. C. Terry, supra n. 26; J. K. Zachariah, supra. n. 19.
55 See J. B. Stinchcomb and W. C. Terry, ibid.
56 Gowdy, Voncile B., Correctional Boot Camps: A Tough Intermediate Sanction (Washington, National Institute of Justice, 1996)Google Scholar.
57 See R. C. Cronin, supra. n. 24; MacKenzie, D., “Boot Camp Prisons: Components, Evaluations, and Empirical Issues,” (1990) 54 Federal Probation 44–52Google Scholar.
58 Frank, Sue, “Oklahoma Camp Stresses Structure and Discipline,” (1991) 53 Corrections Today 102Google Scholar.
59 See D. MacKenzie, D. Wilson, and S. Kider, supra n. 22; see V. B. Gowdy, supra n. 56.
60 See J. K. Zachariah, supra n. 19; see J. C. Burns and G. F. Vito, supra n. 19.
61 See J. B. Stinchcomb and W. C. Terry, supra n. 26.
62 See D. MacKenzie, D. Wilson, and S. Kider, supra n. 22; see. R. C. Cronin, supra n. 24.
63 MacKenzie, Doris Layton and Brame, Robert, “Shock Incarceration and Positive Adjustment during Community supervision,” (1995) 11 Journal of Quantitative Criminology 111–142CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
64 See R. C. Cronin, supra n. 24; Parent, Dayle, Shock Incarceration: An Overview of Existing Programs (Washington, National Institute of Justice, 1989)Google Scholar.
65 See D. MacKenzie and R. Brame, supra n. 63.
66 See J. P. Keenan, R. B. Ruback, and J. P. Hadely, supra n. 23.
67 See. D. Wright & L. Mays, supra n. 23.
68 Interagency Mission Statement of the Pinellas County Boot Camp Planning Team and Advisory Group, 1994, 1.
69 Bureau of Data and Research, Florida Department of Justice, Pinellas County Boot Camp: A Follow-Up Study of the First Five Platoons (Florida, 1996)Google Scholar.
70 MacKenzie, Doris Layton and Parent, D. G., “Boot Camp Prisons for Young Offenders,” in Byrne, James M., Lurigio, Arthur J., and Petersilia, Joan (eds.), Smart Sentencing: The Emergence of Intermediate Sanctions (Beverly Hills, Sage Publications, 1992)Google Scholar; MacKenzie, Doris Layton and Souryal, Claire, Multisite Evaluation of Shock Incarceration Programs on Prison Crowding (Washington, National Institute of Justice, 1994)Google Scholar; See J. C. Burns and G. F. Vito, supra n. 19; see. J. B. Stinchcomb and W. C. Terry, supra n. 26.
71 See J. B. Stinchcomb and W. C. Terry, supra n. 26; see D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra. n. 4; see D. MacKenzie, D. Wilson, and S. Kider, supra n. 22.
72 Horney, Julie, Osgood, Wayne, and Marshall, Haen, “Criminal Careers in the Short-Term Intra-Individual Variability in Crime and Its Relationship to Local Life Circumstances,” (1995) 60 American Sociological Review 655–673CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sampson, Robert J. and Laub, John H., Crime in the Making (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1993)Google Scholar.
73 Goodstein, Lynne I., MacKenzie, Doris Layton, and Shetland, R. Lance, “Personal Control and Inmate Adjustment to Prison,” (1984) 22 (3) Criminology 343–369CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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75 Andrews, Don, Zinger, Ivan, Hoge, Robert D., Bonta, James, Gendreau, Paul, and Cullem, Francis T., “Does Correctional Treatment Work? A Clinically-Relevant and Psychologically-Informed Meta-Analysis,” (1990) 28 Criminology 369–404CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gendreau, Paul and Ross, Robert, “Revivification of Rehabilitation: Evidence from the 1980's,” (1987) 4 Justice Quarterly 349–407CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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77 See F. Taxman, supra n. 11.
78 See F. Taxman, ibid.
79 See D. Palumbo, M. Clifford, and Z. K. Snyder-Joy, supra n. 15.
80 See D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra. n. 4.
81 See J. K. Zachariah, supra n. 19; Steinhart, David, “Juvenile Boot Camps: Clinton May Rev Up an Old Drill,” (1993) 2 Youth Today 15–16Google Scholar.
82 See D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 4.
83 Clark, Cheryl and Aziz, David, “Shock Incarceration in New York State: Philosophy, Results and Limitations,” in MacKenzie, Doris Layton and Hebert, Eugene (eds.), Correctional Boot Camps: A Tough Intermediate Sanction (Washington, D.C., NIJ, 1996)Google Scholar; Zamble, Edward and Proporino, Frank, “Coping, Imprisonment, and Rehabilitation: Some Data and Their Implications,” (1990) 17 (1) Criminal Justice and Behavior 53, 64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
84 Although this effect appears to be related to the positive atmosphere of the facility rather than the fact it's a correctional boot camp (See D. MacKenzie et al., supra n. 21, at 305).
85 See D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 70, at 306.
86 New York Department of Corrections and Division of Parole, The 9th Annual Shock Legislature Report: 1997 (New York, 1997)Google Scholar; see Florida Department of Justice, supra n. 69.
87 At the same time it should be mentioned that many studies examining the effectiveness of correctional boot camps in reducing recidivism have resulted in inconsistent findings, mainly due to variations in research design, such as measuring recidivism in different ways (i.e. parole violators, arrests, convictions, return to prison); using different comparison groups (i.e. boot camp dropouts, probationers, prison releases); tackling offenders for different lengths of time (ranging from six months to five years); and including different factors that research shows to be related to crime.
88 See D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 4.
89 See C. Clark and D. Aziz, supra n. 83.
90 See D. MacKenzie and A. Piquero, supra n. 18.
91 See D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 4.
92 MacKenzie, Doris Layton and Shaw, James, “Inmate Adjustment and Change During Shock Incarceration: The Impact of Correctional Boot Camp Programs,” (1990) 7 Justice Quarterly 125, at 138–139CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
93 See D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 4.
94 See D. MacKenzie et al., supra n. 21.
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96 See D. MacKenzie et al., supra n. 21.
97 D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 4.
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100 See D. MacKenzie and R. Brame, supra n. 63.
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104 See T. Einat, supra n. 7; see L. Sebba, supra n. 2; See. R. Kannai, supra n. 7.
105 See www.1upinfo.com/Israel, supra n. 103.
106 See D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 4
107 See L. Gransky et al., supra n. 98.
108 See D. MacKenzie, D. Wilson, and S. Kider, supra, n. 22.
109 See D. MacKenzie and D. G. Parent, supra n. 70.
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113 See D. MacKenzie and A. Piquero, supra n. 18.
114 The term “prison-bound offenders” relates to two types of populations: (a) offenders who would end up in prisons if correctional boot camps were not available; (b) inmates who were drawn from the prison population prior to their original time of release. See D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 4; Colledge, Dale and Gerber, Jurg, “Rethinking the Assumptions about Boot Camps,” (1998) 62 Federal Probation 54–62Google Scholar.
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119 See M. Gur-Arye, supra n. 28.
120 See T. Einat, supra n. 7; see L. Sebba, supra n. 2.
121 See L. Sebba, ibid.
122 See L. Sebba, ibid.
123 See L. Sebba, ibid.
124 See T. Einat, supra n. 7.
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129 See D. MacKenzie and H. Donaldson, supra n. 19.
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131 See D. MacKenzie, D. Wilson, and S. Kider, supra n. 22; see D. MacKenzie, D. Wilson, G. Styve, and A. Gover, supra n. 21; see D. MacKenzie and R. Brame, supra n. 63.
132 See D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 73; see E. Zamble and F. Proporino, supra n. 83.
133 See J. C. Burns and G. F. Vito, supra n. 19; D. MacKenzie and H. Donaldson, supra n. 19; J. K. Zachariah, supra n. 19; see D. MacKenzie and A. Piquero, supra n. 18.
134 See D. MacKenzie, D. Wilson, G. Styve, and A. Gover, supra n. 21; see D. MacKenzie and C. Souryal, supra n. 4; see D. MacKenzie and J. W. Shaw, supra n. 92.
135 See D. MacKenzie and A. Piquero, supra n. 18.
