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Bridging the Gap: Reparations in Refugee Camps
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 September 2023
Abstract
The commission of large-scale international crimes (namely, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and genocide) could result in populations fleeing from their homes, seeking protection. There is an increasing number of victims of these crimes who have been forcibly displaced and currently live in settlements widely known as refugee camps. Victims of international crimes have the right to receive reparations for the harm they have suffered. This means that international criminal tribunals, particularly the International Criminal Court, will have to consider reparations for victims in refugee camps in the near future when the victims seek to enforce their right to reparations. To date, the delivery of reparations in these contexts has not been analysed adequately in the academic literature; this is the gap that this article aims to discuss. The article explores the extent to which it is suitable and feasible to deliver reparations in refugee camps. One of the main arguments is that living in a refugee camp could compound the crime-related harm already sustained by victims. This feature, along with the instability of the situation of victims and the infrastructure of the camp, constitute key characteristics of refugee camps and should each be taken into consideration in delivering reparations. As this article suggests, the instability of the victims’ situation will inform which modalities of reparations are suitable to be delivered in the context of a refugee camp. Subsequently, the compounded harm and the camp's infrastructure will inform which particular reparative measures, corresponding to each modality, will be suitable and feasible – respectively – to be delivered. The methodology includes desk-based and qualitative research and analysis of primary and secondary sources and case studies.
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- Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press in association with the Faculty of Law, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
References
1 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Refugee Data Finder, 27 October 2022, https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics.
2 Simon Turner, ‘What is a Refugee Camp? Explorations of the Limits and Effects of the Camp’ (2015) 29 Journal of Refugee Studies 139.
3 For examples in transitional justice contexts see Roger Duthie (ed), Transitional Justice and Displacement (Social Science Research Council 2012).
4 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (entered into force 25 May 1993) arts 2(g), 5(d); Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (entered into force 8 November 1994) art 3(d); Rome Statute of the ICC (entered into force 1 July 2002) 2187 UNTS 90, arts 7.1(d), 8.2(a)(vii), 8.2(b)(viii), 8.2(e)(viii); Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone (entered into force 16 January 2002) art 2(d); Law on the Establishment of the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (entered into force 27 October 2004) arts 5, 6.
5 ICC, Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Sentencing Judgment, ICC-01/04-02/06, 7 November 2019.
6 United Nations, ‘Speakers Urge More Resources for International Criminal Court, Victims’ Trust Fund, as President Briefs General Assembly on Record High Caseload, Ongoing Trials’, 31 October 2022, https://press.un.org/en/2022/ga12462.doc.htm.
7 European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights (ECCHR), International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) and Lawyers for Justice in Libya (LFJL), ‘No Way Out: Migrants and Refugees Trapped in Libya Face Crimes Against Humanity’, November 2021, https://www.ecchr.eu/fileadmin/Publikationen/NO_WAY_OUT_Migrants_and_refugees_trapped_in_Libya_face_crimes_against_humanity_EN.pdf; ECCHR, FIDH and LFJL, ‘Situation in Libya – Article 15 Communication on the Commission of Crimes against Migrants and Refugees in Libya, Executive Summary’, 19 November 2021, https://www.ecchr.eu/fileadmin/Juristische_Dokumente/20211119_Executive_Summary_Libya_ICC_final.pdf; Mark Kersten, ‘It Is Time for the ICC to Address Crimes against Asylum Seekers’, Al Jazeera, 8 December 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2021/12/8/it-is-time-for-the-icc-address-crimes-against-asylum-seekers.
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9 ICC, Prosecutor v Germain Katanga, Draft Implementation Plan relevant to Trial Chamber II's Order for Reparations of 24 March 2017, ICC-01/04-01/07, TFV, 25 July 2017, paras 59, 64–67.
10 See, eg, ICC, Situation in the People's Republic of Bangladesh/Republic of the Union of Myanmar, Victims’ Joint Request concerning Hearings Outside the Host State, ICC-01/19, 4 August 2020.
11 To conduct the interviews, an ethical approval application was submitted to and approved by the University of Essex Ethics Committee (ETH2122-0796) in February 2022. The participants did not consent to have their names disclosed for purposes other than the support of the Human Rights Centre Clinic Project ‘Delivering Reparations in the Context of Refugee Camps’, produced by the authors in their capacity as postgraduate students at the University of Essex, in partnership with the Trust Fund for Victims at the International Criminal Court. This is why in the present article the interviewees are referred to as ‘Experts’.
12 ICC, Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Amended Reparations Order, ICC-01/04-01/06-3129-AnxA, Appeals Chamber, 3 March 2015, para 2.
13 ICC, Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Reparations Order, ICC-01/04-02/06, Trial Chamber VI, 8 March 2021, para 23.
14 In its orders for reparations, the Court uses the term ‘modalities of reparations’ to refer to each of the reparations categories of restitution, compensation, rehabilitation and symbolic measures. For purposes of consistency, the term ‘modality’ is used in the same way throughout the article. See ICC, Prosecutor v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, Reparations Order, ICC-01/12-01/15-236, Trial Chamber VIII, 17 August 2017, para 46 (where the Court mentions that ‘Reparations “modalities” are the specific methods identified to address the kinds of harm requiring reparations. With regard to modalities, Article 75 of the Statute gives a non-exhaustive list, including “restitution, compensation and rehabilitation”’).
15 Lubanga, Amended Reparations Order (n 12) para 34.
16 ibid para 35.
17 United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law (21 March 2006), UN Doc A/RES/60/147, para 19.
18 ICC, Prosecutor v Germain Katanga, Reparations Order, ICC-01/04-01/07-3728, Trial Chamber II, 24 March 2017, para 103 fn 431.
19 Ntaganda, Reparations Order (n 13) para 202..
20 Lubanga, Amended Reparations Order (n 12) para 42.
21 ibid para 67.
22 Al Mahdi, Reparations Order (n 14) para 49.
23 Ntaganda, Reparations Order (n 13) para 88.
24 ibid.
25 UNGA (n 17) para 22.
26 Al Mahdi, Reparations Order (n 14) para 71.
27 ibid para 90.
28 ibid para 49.
29 ICC, Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Judgment, ICC-01/04-01/06 A A 2 A 3, Appeals Chamber, 3 March 2015, para 200.
30 ibid.
31 ICC, Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Filing on Reparations and Draft Implementation Plan, ICC-01/04-01/06-3177-Red, TFV, 3 November 2015, para 110a.
32 Lubanga, Appeals Chamber Judgment (n 29) para 200.
33 Lubanga, TFV Filing on Reparations (n 31) para 15.
34 ibid.
35 ICC, Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, TFV Observations Relevant to Reparations, ICC-01/04-02/06-2476, Trial Chamber IV, 28 February 2020, para 102.
36 ibid 107; Katanga, TFV Draft Implementation Plan (n 9) para 122.
37 Ntaganda, TFV Observations (n 35) para 107.
38 Katanga, TFV Draft Implementation Plan (n 9) para 122.
39 ibid para 59.
40 Naomi Roht-Arriaza and Katharine Orlovsky, ‘A Complementary Relationship: Reparations and Development’, Research Brief, International Center for Transitional Justice, July 2009, 3.
41 ICC, Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Draft Implementation Plan for Collective Reparations to Victims, ICC-01/04-01/06-3177-AnnA, TFV, 3 November 2015, paras 234–35.
42 Lubanga, Amended Reparations Order (n 12) paras 6–52.
43 Ntaganda, Reparations Order (n 13) paras 15–40; this reparations order was partially reversed and remanded by the Appeals Chamber on 12 September 2022 but it is unclear to what extent the principles have been revoked. The Appeals Chamber did not contest the Principles themselves but found error in the way in which the Trial Chamber (i) failed to make any appropriate determination or provide a reasoned decision in relation to the number of potentially eligible or actual victims of the award; (ii) failed to provide an appropriate calculation or set out sufficient reasoning for the amount of the monetary award against Mr Ntaganda; (iii) did not assess and rule upon the victims’ applications for reparations and did not lay out parameters for an assessment of eligibility procedure by the TFV; and (iv) did not provide reasons in relation to the concept of transgenerational harm and the evidentiary guidance to establish this. For the full decision see ICC, Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Judgment on the Appeals against the Decision of Trial Chamber VI of 8 March 2021 entitled ‘Reparations Order’, ICC-01/04-02/06 A4-A5, Appeals Chamber, 12 September 2022.
44 Lubanga, Amended Reparations Order (n 12) paras 12–19.
45 ibid para 33.
46 Lubanga, TFV Filing on Reparations (n 31) para 16.
47 Lubanga, Amended Reparations Order (n 12) paras 24–26.
48 ibid para 47.
49 ibid para 48.
50 UNHCR, ‘Global Strategy for Settlement and Shelter: A UNHCR Strategy 2014–2018’, 16, https://www.unhcr.org/media/32280.
51 ibid 18.
52 ibid 17.
53 UNHCR, Policy on Alternatives to Camps (22 July 2014), UN Doc UNHCR/HCP/2014/9, 4.
54 ibid.
55 ibid.
56 ibid.
57 UNHCR, Conclusion on Protracted Refugee Situations No. 109 (LXI) ExCom Conclusions (8 December 2009), https://www.unhcr.org/publications/conclusion-protracted-refugee-situations. In 2021, approximately 74 per cent of the total refugee population was in a protracted refugee situation. Some examples of these situations are the South Sudanese in Sudan, Central African in Cameroon, Rohingya in Bangladesh, and Syrians in Jordan: UNHCR, Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2021 (2002), 20, https://www.unhcr.org/publications/brochures/62a9d1494/global-trends-report-2021.html.
58 ibid.
59 UN Security Council, Resolution 1208 (1998) on the Situation in Africa: Refugee Camps (19 November 1998), UN Doc S/RES/1208, http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/doc/1208.
60 Richard AI Johnson, ‘Refugee Camp Security: Decreasing Vulnerability through Demographic Controls’ (2011) 24 Journal of Refugee Studies 23.
61 ibid 43.
62 Bart de Bruijn, ‘The Living Conditions and Well-Being of Refugees’, UN Development Programme, Human Development Reports, Research Paper 2009/25, July 2009, 14, http://www.rrojasdatabank.info/HDRP_2009_25.pdf.
63 UNHCR, UNHCR Policy on the Prevention of Risk, Mitigation and Response to Gender-Based Violence (2 October 2020), UN Doc UNHCR/HCP/2020/01, https://www.unhcr.org/5fa018914/unhcr-policy-prevention-risk-mitigation-response-gender-based-violence. The UNHCR adopts the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) definition of gender-based violence as ‘an umbrella term for any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person's will and that is based on socially ascribed (i.e. gender) differences between males and females. It includes acts that inflict physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering, threats of such acts, coercion, and other deprivations of liberty. These acts can occur in public or in private’; see IASC GBV Guidelines for Integrating GBV Interventions in Humanitarian Action, 2015, Part 1, https://gbvguidelines.org.
64 See, eg, Abdi, Awa Mohamed, ‘Refugees, Gender-Based Violence and Resistance: A Case Study of Somali Refugee Women in Kenya’ in Tastsoglou, Evangelia and Dobrowolsky, Alexandra (eds), Women, Migration and Citizenship (Ashgate 2006) 231Google Scholar; Krause, Ulrike, ‘Escaping Conflicts and Being Safe? Post-conflict Refugee Camps and the Continuum of Violence’ in Buckley-Zistel, Susanne and Krause, Ulrike (eds), Gender, Violence, Refugees (Berghahn Books 2017) 173Google Scholar.
65 De Bruijn (n 62) 30. For instance, poor housing in Sierra Leone led to rodent infestation, causing the transmission of Lassa fever among camp residents in 2003: Francesa Fontanini, ‘UNHCR Joins Fight against Lassa Fever in Sierra Leonean Camps’, UNHCR, 1 April 2003, https://www.unhcr.org/uk/news/latest/2003/4/3e899b5f4/unhcr-joins-fight-against-lassa-fever-sierra-leonean-camps.html#:~:text=The%20UN%20refugee%20agency%20has,and%20Kenema%20districts'%20refugee%20camps; Bonner, Phillip and others, ‘Poor Housing Quality Increases Risk of Rodent Infestation and Lassa Fever in Refugee Camps of Sierra Leone’ (2007) 77 American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 169CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
66 De Bruijn (n 62) 37.
67 Omata, Naohiko, The Myth of Self-Reliance: Economic Lives Inside a Liberian Refugee Camp (Berghahn Books 2017) 23CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
68 The Lutheran World Federation, ‘Rapid Assessment of Barriers to Education in Kakuma Refugee Camp with a Focus on Access and Quality in Primary Education’, February 2015, 7, https://kenyadjibouti.lutheranworld.org/sites/default/files/documents/Barriers%20to%20Education%20in%20Kakuma%20Refugee%20Camp%20Assessment_0.pdf.
69 Anna-Mara Schön and others, ‘Developing a Camp Performance Indicator System and Its Application to Zaatari, Jordan’ (2018) 8 Journal of Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management 346, 346–48.
70 Omata (n 67) 21.
71 ibid 42.
72 Daynes, Leigh, ‘The Health Impacts of the Refugee Crisis: A Medical Charity Perspective’ (2016) 16 Clinical Medicine 437CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
73 De Bruijn (n 62) 31.
74 Interview, Reparations Expert 1, 19 May 2022, ETH2122-0796.
75 Michel Agier, ‘Introduction: L'Emcampement du Monde’ in Michel Agier (ed), Un Monde de Camps (La Découverte 2014) 11, 20 (the original French versions of the terms used are ‘l'extraterritorialité’, ‘l'exception’ and ‘l'exclusion’); Turner, Simon, ‘What Is a Refugee Camp? Explorations of the Limits and Effects of the Camp’ (2016) 29 Journal of Refugee Studies 139CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
76 Interview, Reparations Expert 1 (n 74).
77 Daynes (n 72) 439.
78 van de Wiel, Willemine and others, ‘Mental Health Consequences of Long-Term Stays in Refugee Camps: Preliminary Evidence from Moria’ (2021) 21 BMC Public Health 1290CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
79 Orna Braun-Lewensohn and Khaled Al-Sayed, ‘Syrian Adolescent Refugees: How Do They Cope during Their Stay in Refugee Camps?’ (2018) 9 Frontiers in Psychology 1258, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01258/full.
80 ibid.
81 Andrew Riley and others, ‘Daily Stressors, Trauma Exposure, and Mental Health among Stateless Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh’ (2017) 54 Transcultural Psychiatry 304.
82 ibid.
83 ibid.
84 Nadia Vossoughi and others, ‘Mental Health Outcomes for Youth Living in Refugee Camps: A Review’ (2018) 19 Trauma, Violence and Abuse 528.
85 Chan, Emily YY, Chiu, Cheuk Pong and Chan, Gloria KW, ‘Medical and Health Risks Associated with Communicable Diseases of Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh 2017’ (2018) 68 International Journal of Infectious Diseases 39CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; see also Hammer, Charlotte Christiane, Brainard, Julii and Hunter, Paul R, ‘Risk Factors and Risk Factor Cascades for Communicable Disease Outbreaks in Complex Humanitarian Emergencies: A Qualitative Systematic Review’ (2018) 3(4) BMJ Global HealthCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed, article e000647.
86 Chan, Pong Chiu and Chan (n 85).
87 ibid.
88 ibid.
89 ibid. See also Asterios Kampouras and others, ‘Child Morbidity and Disease Burden in Refugee Camps in Mainland Greece’ (2019) 6(3) Children, article 46, https://doi.org/10.3390/children6030046.
90 Williams, Holly Ann, ‘Families in Refugee Camps’ (1990) 49 Human Organisation 100Google Scholar.
91 ibid.
92 UNHCR, ‘Livelihood Programming in UNHCR: Operational Guidelines’, 2012, 7, https://www.unhcr.org/4fbdf17c9.pdf.
93 Sarah J Hoffman and others, ‘“Sleeping in a Boundary” Constructing the Meaning of Health in a Refugee Camp’ (2019) 40 Health Care for Women International 744.
94 ibid.
95 Confirmed in Interview, Reparations Expert 3, 19 May 2022, ETH2122-0796; Interview, Reparations Expert 2, 18 May 2022, ETH2122-0796.
96 ICC, Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the case of the Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dylio, Decision Setting the Size of the Reparations Award, ICC-01/04-01/06, Trial Chamber II, 21 December 2017, paras 180–85; ICC, Projet de plan de mise en œuvre des réparations accordées aux victimes à titre collectif présenté en exécution de l'ordonnance de réparation modifiée rendue le 3 mars 2015 dans l'affaire concernant Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Reparations Implementation Plan, TFV, ICC-01/04-01/06, 1 February 2016, paras 71–80; ICC, Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the case of the Prosecutor v Germain Katanga, Order for Reparations pursuant to Article 75 of the Statute, ICC-01/04-01/07, Trial Chamber II, 24 March 2017, paras 57–61; ICC, Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the case of the Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Reparations Order, Trial Chamber VI, ICC-01/04-02/06, 8 March 2021, paras 136–47.
97 Rome Statute of the ICC (n 4) art 7(2)(d).
98 ibid art 8(2)(e)(viii).
99 Lubanga, Amended Reparations Order (n 12) para 59; Ntaganda, Reparations Order (n 13) paras 132–33; the ‘proximate cause’ is legally sufficient to result in liability, assessing, inter alia, whether it was reasonably foreseeable that the acts and conduct underlying the conviction would cause the resulting harm.
100 Interview, Reparations Expert 4, 8 June 2022, ETH2122-0796.
101 ibid.
102 Interview, Reparations Expert 3 (n 95).
103 Interview, Reparations Expert 4 (n 100).
104 Interview, Reparations Expert 3 (n 95).
105 Section 2.2 above.
106 Lubanga, TFV Filing on Reparations (n 31) para 210.
107 ibid paras 33–42.
108 UNHCR (n 53) 4.
109 Frances Nicholson and Judith Kumin, A Guide to International Refugee Protection and Building State Asylum Systems, Handbook for Parliamentarians No 27 (Inter-Parliamentary Union and UNHCR 2017) 228, https://www.unhcr.org/3d4aba564.pdf.
110 ibid.
111 Interview, Humanitarian Actor, 24 May 2022, ETH2122-0796.
112 Interview, Reparations Expert 1 (n 74).
113 UNHCR (n 53) 5.
114 Katanga, TFV Draft Implementation Plan (n 9) para 61.
115 ibid para 63.
116 Ntaganda, Reparations Order (n 13) para 83.
117 ibid.
118 Ntaganda, TFV Observations (n 35) para 104.
119 Center for Global Development, ‘Doing Cash Differently: How Cash Transfers Can Transform Humanitarian Aid: Report of the High-Level Panel on Humanitarian Cash Transfers‘, September 2015, 13, https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/9828.pdf.
120 ibid 14.
121 Interview, Reparations Expert 1 (n 74).
122 Lubanga, TFV Draft Implementation Plan (n 41) para 159.
123 ibid para 157.
124 Hoffman and others (n 93) 745.
125 UN, ‘Global Compact on Refugees’, December 2018, para 68, https://www.unhcr.org/5c658aed4.
126 Kristjansdottir, Edda, ‘International Mass Claims Processes and the ICC Trust Fund for Victims’ in Ferstman, Carla, Goetz, Mariana and Stephens, Alan (eds), Reparations for Victims of Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity (Brill 2009) 167, 184Google Scholar.
127 Schön and others (n 69) 348.
128 ACF International, ‘South Sudan: Cash Grants to Support Income Generating Activities’, January 2012, 3, https://www.calpnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/ACF-South-Sudan-Case-Study-Jan-2012.pdf.
129 Sachithanandan, Pubudu, ‘Reparations for Victims and Sustainable Development’ in Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger and Sébastien Jodoin (eds), Sustainable Development, International Criminal Justice, and Treaty Implementation (Cambridge University Press 2013) 242, 252Google Scholar.
130 Interview, Reparations Expert 1 (n 74).
131 Timothy H Nourse, ‘Microfinance for Refugees, Emerging Principles for Effective Implementation’, 2003, https://www.unhcr.org/3fc47f78d.pdf.
132 Jacobsen, Karen and others, ‘Using Microenterprise Interventions to Support the Livelihoods of Forcibly Displaced People: The Impact of a Microcredit Program in IDP Camps in Lira, Northern Uganga’ (2006) 25 Refugee Survey Quarterly 23, 28–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nourse (n 131) 2.
133 Karen Jacobsen, ‘Microcredit and Other Loan Programs in Protracted Refugee Situations: Lessons from the Alchemy Project’, Feinstein International Center, April 2004, 5, https://www.alnap.org/system/files/content/resource/files/main/jacobsen-microcredit-and-other-loan-programs-in-protracted-refugee-situations-lessons-from-the-alchemy-project%2C.pdf.
134 ICC, Prosecutor v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, Updated Implementation Plan, ICC-01/12-01/15-291-Red3, TFV, 14 October 2019, para 129.
135 Katanga, TFV Draft Implementation Plan (n 9) para 64; Interview, Reparations Expert 1 (n 74).
136 Interview, Reparations Expert 1 (n 74).
137 Yael Danieli, ‘Massive Trauma and the Healing Role of Reparative Justice: An Update’ in Ferstman, Goetz and Stephens (n 126) 38, 42.
138 Lubanga, TFV Filing on Reparations (n 31) paras 194–203.
139 ibid para 207.
140 Lubanga TFV Draft Implementation Plan (n 41) para 112 and subsequent.
141 ibid paras 112, 157.
142 Katanga, TFV Draft Implementation Plan (n 9) paras 84, 99.
143 ibid para 99.
144 ibid.
145 Subsection 3.2.4. See also Lubanga, TFV Filing on Reparations (n 31) para 9 (where this assertion is mentioned explicitly).
146 Subsection 3.2.4.
147 Lubanga, Amended Reparations Order (n 12) para 79.
148 Katanga, TFV Draft Implementation Plan (n 9) para 3.
149 Lubanga, TFV Draft Implementation Plan (n 41) para 157.
150 ICC, Decision pursuant to Article 15 of the Rome Statute on the Authorisation of an Investigation into the Situation in the People's Republic of Bangladesh/Republic of the Union of Myanmar, ICC-01/19, 14 November 2019.
151 UN Security Council (UNSC), Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the Secretary-General (1 February 2005), UN Doc S/2005/60, 3.
152 UNSC Resolution 1593 (31 March 2005), UN Doc S/RES/1593.
153 ICC, Situation in Darfur, Sudan, ICC-02/05, March 2005, https://www.icc-cpi.int/darfur.
154 UNHCR, ‘Operational Data Portal – Refugee Situations (Bangladesh)’, 9 June 2022, https://data.unhcr.org/en/country/bgd.
155 UNHCR, ‘The Displaced and Stateless of Myanmar in the Asia-Pacific Region: An Overview of the Current Situation for Rohingya and Other Persons of Concern from Myanmar and UNHCR's Response Across the Region’, 21 January 2021, 4, https://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/The%20Displaced%20and%20Stateless%20of%20Myanmar%20in%20the%20Asia-Pacific%20Region%20-%20January%202021.pdf.
156 Interview, UNHCR Office in Cox's Bazar, 27 June 2022, ETH2122-0796.
157 ibid.
158 ibid.
159 World Food Programme (WFP), ‘WFP Bangladesh Country Brief: May 2022’, https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000140752/download/?_ga=2.214103191.1453376078.1656528645-477615344.1656528645.
160 Burma Human Rights Network, ‘We Also Have Dreams: Ongoing Safety and Quality of Life Issues for Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh’, 8 February 2022, 11, https://www.bhrn.org.uk/en/report/1191-we-also-have-dreams.html?fbclid=IwAR3hz08CRcxglVBazKtbjOZMwXAQHIV047kZM7zMZZ3F6T3Du2ArTazH-jQ.
161 Inter Sector Coordination Group, ‘Joint Response Plan (JRP) Implementation Update Rohingya Humanitarian Crisis, October–December 2021’, 6 March 2022, 5, https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh/rohingya-humanitarian-crisis-joint-response-plan-implementation-update-october; International Organization for Migrations (IOM), ‘IOM Bangladesh: Rohingya Humanitarian Response: Monthly Situation Report’, January 2022, 6, https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh/iom-bangladesh-rohingya-humanitarian-crisis-response-monthly-situation-report-10.
162 UNICEF, ‘Bangladesh Humanitarian Situation Report No. 58’, 1 January–31 December 2021, 3 https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh/bangladesh-humanitarian-situation-report-no-58-1-january-31-december-2021#:~:text=As%20of%2031%20December%202021,among%20refugees%20in%20the%20camps.
163 IOM (n 161) 1.
164 Interview, UNHCR Office in Cox's Bazar (n 156).
165 Amnesty International, ‘Let Us Speak for Our Rights: Human Rights Situation of Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh’, 15 September 2020, 6–7, https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa13/2884/2020/en.
166 ibid 11.
167 Burma Human Rights Network (n 160) 13.
168 Amnesty International (n 165) 17.
169 Human Rights Watch, ‘Bangladesh: Rohingya Refugees Students Expelled – Ensure Formal Education is Available to All Children’, 1 April 2019, https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/04/01/bangladesh-rohingya-refugee-students-expelled.
170 ibid. Grades 6 to 9 are typically intended for children from 11 to 14 years. Because Rohingyas are behind in their education level, children enrolled in these grades are aged 14 to 16 years.
171 Interview, UNHCR Office in Cox's Bazar (n 156).
172 ibid.
173 Human Rights Watch, ’Bangladesh: Rohingya Refugee Schools Face Closure – Tens of Thousands of Students Will Lose Access to Education’, 18 December 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/12/18/bangladesh-rohingya-refugee-schools-face-closure.
174 Interview, UNHCR Office in Cox's Bazar (n 156).
175 Habibu Rahman, ‘Rohingya Refugee Children Are Being Denied an Education’, The Diplomat, 3 September 2021, https://thediplomat.com/2021/09/rohingya-refugee-children-are-being-denied-an-education/.
176 Inter Sector Coordination Group (n 161).
177 UNICEF (n 162).
178 Sarah Ferguson, ‘Children Are Disappearing in Bangladesh’, UNICEF, 10 January 2020, https://www.unicefusa.org/stories/children-are-disappearing-bangladesh.
179 Burma Human Rights Network (n 160) 30.
180 Human Rights Watch, ‘World Report 2022’, 73, https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022. ‘Seven Killed in Rohingya Refugee Camp Attack: Bangladesh Police’, Al Jazeera, 22 October 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/22/bangladesh-rohingya-refugee-camps-seven-killed-police#:~:text=Attackers%20have%20killed%20at%20least,AFP%20news%20agency%20on%20Friday.
181 ibid. More than 100 fire incidents damaged UNICEF services facilities in 2021 and IOM centres at the start of 2022; see, eg, UNICEF (n 162) and IOM (n 161).
182 UNHCR, ‘UNHCR Bangladesh Operational Update – May 2022’, 22 June 2022, https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/93812.
183 UNHCR (n 155) 6.
184 Save the Children, ‘COVID-19: Access to Full Mobile Data and Telecommunications in Myanmar and Bangladesh Is Essential to Save Lives’, 16 April 2020, https://www.savethechildren.net/news/covid-19-access-full-mobile-data-and-telecommunications-myanmar-and-bangladesh-essential-save.
185 Interview, UNHCR Office in Cox's Bazar (n 156).
186 ibid.
187 Shohel, M Mahruf C, ‘Education in Emergencies: Challenges of Providing Education for Rohingya Children Living in Refugee Camps in Bangladesh’ (2020) 13 Education Inquiry 105Google Scholar.
188 Interview, UNHCR Office in Cox's Bazar (n 156).
189 ibid.
190 UNHCR, ‘The Impact of Financial Assistance through Volunteer Programmes in Cox's Bazar Refugee Camps’, June 2022, https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh/impact-financial-assistance-through-volunteer-programmes-coxs-bazar-refugee-camps-june-2022.
191 ibid.
192 ABC, ‘Rohingya Refugees’ Lawyers Lobby for International Criminal Court To Sit in Asia’, RNZ, 1 September 2020, https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/world/424979/rohingya-refugees-lawyers-lobby-for-international-criminal-court-to-sit-in-asia.
193 Interview, Reparations Expert 4 (n 100).
194 IOM, ‘New Cultural Memory Centre Ensures Continuity of Rohingya Heritage’, 26 May 2021, https://www.iom.int/news/new-cultural-memory-centre-ensures-continuity-rohingya-heritage.
195 ibid.
196 ibid.
197 For more information on this see the Rohingya Cultural Memory Centre website at: https://rohingyaculturalmemorycentre.iom.int/detail.aspx?lang=en&area=blog&cid=1&bid=110&pid=2.
198 Interview, Reparations Expert 4 (n 100).
199 WFP, ‘Chad Country Brief, April 2021’, 14 May 2021, 1, https://reliefweb.int/report/chad/wfp-chad-country-brief-april-2021.
200 UNHCR, ‘Refugee Policy Review Framework: Country Summary as at 30 June 2020’, 24 March 2022, 1, https://reliefweb.int/report/chad/chad-refugee-policy-review-framework-country-summary-30-june-2020-march-2022.
201 Barney Thompson, ‘Climate Change and Displacement’, UNHCR UK, 15 October 2019, https://www.unhcr.org/uk/news/stories/2019/10/5da5e18c4/climate-change-and-displacement.html.
202 European Commission, Disaster Risk Management Knowledge Centre (DRMKC), Inform Risk Model Map 2022, https://web.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dashboard/INFORMRISKCOUNTRYPROFILE2023/?no-header=1&v-vISO3=AFG&no-scroll=1.
203 UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), ‘Aperçu des besoins humanitaires 2020: Tchad’, 12 February 2020 (in French), 27, https://reliefweb.int/report/chad/tchad-aper-u-des-besoins-humanitaires-2020-janvier-2020#:~:text=Environs%20761%20000%20personnes%20sont,pour%20leur%20int%C3%A9gration%20socio%2D%C3%A9conomique; Interview, Humanitarian Actor, 24 May 2022, ETH2122-0796.
204 UN OCHA, ibid 48.
205 ibid 27.
206 UNHCR, ‘Global Compact on Refugees: Indicator Report’, 16 November 2021, 46, https://www.unhcr.org/global-compact-refugees-indicator-report/wp-content/uploads/sites/143/2021/11/2021_GCR-Indicator-Report_spread_web.pdf.
207 UN OCHA (n 203) 18.
208 ibid 18.
209 UNHCR (n 200) 2.
210 ibid 10.
211 ibid 13.
212 Interview, Humanitarian Actor (n 111).
213 ibid.
214 UNHCR (n 200) 8.
215 Interview, Humanitarian Actor (n 111).
216 ibid.
217 ibid.
218 ibid.
219 UNHCR, ‘First Darfur Refugee Returns from Chad’, 20 April 2018, https://www.unhcr.org/news/briefing/2018/4/5ad9a4604/first-darfur-refugee-returns-from-chad.html.
220 Agence France-Presse, ‘Clashes in Sudan's Darfur Kill More Than 100’, VOA News, 13 June 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/clashes-in-sudan-s-darfur-kill-more-than-100-/6616442.html; Marc Espanol, ‘Wave of Atrocities in Darfur Tarnishes Sudan's Coup Authorities’, Al-Monitor, 16 May 2022, https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2022/05/wave-atrocities-darfur-tarnishes-sudans-coup-authorities; France 24, ‘Violence in Sudan's Darfur Lays Bare Deepening Crisis’, 19 February 2022, https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220219-violence-in-sudan-s-darfur-lays-bare-deepening-crisis.
221 Interview, Humanitarian Actor (n 111).
222 ibid.
223 ibid.
224 UNHCR (n 200) 2.
225 ibid 4.
226 Ntaganda, TFV Observations Relevant to Reparations (n 35) para 105; Roht-Arriaza and Orlovsky (n 40) 3.
227 UNHCR, ‘Darfur Clashes Displace Thousands’, 7 December 2021, https://www.unhcr.org/news/briefing/2021/12/61af220d4/darfur-clashes-displace-thousands.htm; UNHCR, ‘Chad Emergency Update’, 18 August 2020, 1–2, https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/78717; UNHCR, ‘Chad Emergency External Update (Ouaddai Province, Eastern Chad)’, 7 June 2021, 1, https://reliefweb.int/report/chad/chad-emergency-external-update-ouaddai-province-eastern-chad-07-june-2021.
228 UNHCR, ‘Chad Situation Map of Persons of Concern to UNHCR’, March 2022, 1, https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/92004.
229 Interview, Reparations Expert 3 (n 95).
230 Interview, Humanitarian Actor (n 111); Interview, Reparations Expert 1 (n 74).
231 Interview, Humanitarian Actor (n 111).
232 Interview, Reparations Expert 4 (n 100).
233 Ntaganda, Reparations Order (n 13) para 66.
234 Rome Statute (n 4) art 75(4).
235 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (entered into force 27 January 1980) art 34 (states that a treaty does not create obligations or rights for a non-state party without its consent).