Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-rvbq7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-12T04:38:43.906Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

International Criminal Law*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 February 2016

Yoram Dinstein
Get access

Extract

The individual human being is manifestly the object of every legal system on this planet, and consequently also of international law. The ordinary subject of international law is the international corporate entity: first and foremost (though not exclusively) the State. Yet, the corporate entity is not a tangible res that exists in reality, but an abstract notion, moulded through legal manipulation by and within the ambit of a superior legal system. When the veil is pierced, one can see that behind the legal personality of the State (or any other international corporate entity) there are natural persons: flesh-and-blood human beings. In the final analysis, Westlake was indubitably right when he stated:

The duties and rights of States are only the duties and rights of the men who compose them.

That is to say, in actuality, the international rights and duties of States devolve on human beings, albeit indirectly and collectively. In other words, the individual human being is not merely the object of international law, but indirectly also its subject, notwithstanding the fact that, ostensibly, the subject is the international corporate entity.

Type
Articles
Information
Israel Law Review , Volume 20 , Issue 2-3 , Spring–Summer 1985 , pp. 206 - 242
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and The Faculty of Law, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem 1985

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Westlake, John, Collected Papers (Cambridge U.P., edited by Oppenheim, , 1914) vol. 1, p. 78Google Scholar.

2 See Kelsen, , Principles of International Law (New York, Rinehart & Co., 1st ed., 1952) 114Google Scholar.

3 See Dinstein, , International Claims (Tel Aviv, Schocken, 1977, in Hebrew) 14Google Scholar.

4 See the Dissenting Opinion of Judge Moore, in the S.S. Lotus Case (A/10) (1972) 70Google Scholar; Hudson, Manley O., World Court Reports (Carnegie Endowment for Int'l Peace, Washington, D.C., 1935) vol. 2, pp. 20, 69Google Scholar.

5 (1958) 52 Am. J. Int'l L. 842, 846.

6 (1982) 21 Int'l Legal Materials 1261, 1288–9.

7 See Dinstein, , “Criminal Jurisdiction over Aircraft Hijacking”, (1972) 7 Is.L.R. 195, 197–200CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 Geneva Convention on the High Seas, supra n. 5 at 846 (Art. 19); United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, supra n. 6 at 1289 (Art. 105).

9 On the popular fallacy that every violation of the laws of war is necessarily a war crime, see Dinstein, , The Laws of War (Tel Aviv, Schocken, 1983, in Hebrew) 278–9Google Scholar.

10 (1945) 39 Am. J. Int'l L., Supp. 257, 258.

11 Report of the International Law Commission to the General Assembly, 2nd Session, 1950 (A/1316), [1950] 2 Yrbk. Int'l L. Comm'n 364, 374–8.

12 Charter of the International Military Tribunal, supra n. 10 at 260.

13 International Military Tribunal, Judgment (Nuremberg, 1946), (1947) 41 Am. J. Int'l L. 172, 248Google Scholar.

14 Hague, Convention (No. IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, 1907, Documents on the Laws of War (ed. by Roberts, and Guelff, , Oxford, Oxford U.P., 1982) 43, 48Google Scholar (hereinafter: Laws of War).

15 International Military Tribunal, supra n. 13 at 218.

16 See Cowles, , “Universality of Jurisdiction over War Crimes,” (1945) 33 Calif. L.R. 177, 216–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Charter of the International Military Tribunal, supra n. 10 at 260.

18 International Military Tribunal, supra n. 13 at 217–221.

19 See Maugham, , U.N.O. and War Crimes (London, J. Murray, 1951) 18–39, 52–8Google Scholar.

20 German High Command Trial (United States Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 1948), 15 I.L.R. 376, 379–383.

21 I.G. Farben Trial (United States Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 1948), 15 I.L.R. 668, 669Google Scholar.

22 Charter of the International Military Tribunal, supra n. 10 at 260.

23 International Military Tribunal Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression (Office of U.S. Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality, Washington, U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., 1946) vol. 1, pp. 11–2Google Scholar.

24 See Schwelb, , “Crimes against Humanity”, (1946) 23 Brit. Yrbk. Int'l L. 178, 179, 188, 193–5, 204Google Scholar.

25 International Military Tribunal, supra n. 13 at 249.

26 See Goldstein, , “Crimes against Humanity: Some Jewish Aspects,” [1948] Jew. Yrbk. Int'l L. 206, 221Google Scholar.

27 International Military Tribunal, supra n. 13 at 249.

28 See Schwelb, supra n. 24 at 204.

29 See ibid., at 179, 188–9.

30 See ibid., at 190.

31 Eichmann v. Attorney General, (1962) 16 (iii) P.D. 2033, 2048.

32 See Lemkin, , Axis Rule in Occupied Europe (Carnegie Endowment for Int'l Peace, Washington, D.C., 1944) 79Google Scholar.

33 Laws of War 157, 158.

34 Ibid., at 158–9.

35 Robinson, N., The Genocide Convention (Institute of Jewish Affairs, World Jewish Congress, New York, 1960) 58Google Scholar.

36 See ibid., at 58, 62.

37 See Anonymous, , “Genocide: A Commentary on the Convention,” (1948–1949) 58 Yale L.J. 1142, 1144–5Google Scholar.

38 See ibid., at 1145.

39 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, supra n. 33 at 158.

40 Ibid., at 159.

41 See Robinson, supra n. 35 at 31–2.

42 Eichmann v. Attorney General, supra n. 31 at 2066.

43 Fawcett, , “The Eichman Case,” (1962) 38 Brit. Yrbk. Int'l L. 181, 205Google Scholar.

44 Laws of War 169, 189.

45 Ibid., at 193, 210–1.

46 Ibid., at 215, 268.

47 Ibid., at 271, 323.

48 On the reasons for using the expression “grave breaches” in the Conventions in lieu of the ordinary term “war crimes”, see Gutteridge, , “The Geneva Conventions of 1949,” (1949) 26 Brit. Yrbk. Int'l L. 294, 304–5Google Scholar.

49 Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, supra n. 44 at 188–9 (Art. 49); Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, supra n. 45 at 210 (Art. 50); Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, supra n. 46 at 267–8 (Art. 129); Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, supra n. 47 at 323 (Art. 146).

50 See Yingling, and Ginnane, , “The Geneva Conventions of 1949,” (1952) 46 Am. J. Int'l L. 393, 426CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

51 See Carnegie, “Jurisdiction over Violations of the Laws and Customs of War,” (1963) 39 Brit. Yrbk. Int'l L. 402, 408Google Scholar.

52 Laws of War 387.

53 Ibid., at 396.

54 Ibid., at 437–9.

55 Ibid., at 339, 349.

56 See Carnegie, supra n. 51 at 409.

57 [1973] U.N. Juridical Yrbk. 70.

58 Ibid., at 71.

59 Ibid., at 72.

60 [1965] U.N. Juridical Yrbk. 63, 65.

61 Ibid.

62 266 U.N.T.S. 40, 43.

63 Ibid., at 42.

64 Geneva Convention on the High Seas, supra n. 5 at 845 (Art. 13); United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, supra n. 6 at 1288 (Art. 99).

65 U.N. Doc. A/RES/39/46, p. 4 (1984).

66 96 U.N.T.S. 272, 274.

67 520 U.N.T.S. 204, 252–4.

68 Hudson, M.O., International Legislation (Carnegie Endowment for Intťl Peace, Washington, D.C., 1931) vol. 4, pp. 2692, 2696Google Scholar.

69 Geneva Convention on the High Seas, supra n. 5 at 849 (Art. 27); United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, supra n. 6 at 1290 (Art. 113).

70 (1926) 20 Am. J. Inťl L., Supp. 178, 183.

71 [1970] U.N. Juridical Yrbk. 131, id.

72 Ibid., at 132 (Art. 4).

73 See Dinstein, supra n. 7 at 200.

74 [1971] U.N. Juridical Yrbk. 143, 143–4.

75 Ibid., at 145 (Art. 5).

76 [1973] U.N. Juridical Yrbk. 75.

77 Ibid., at 76 (Art. 1).

78 ibid.

79 American Convention to Prevent and Punish the Acts of Terrorism Taking the Form of Crimes against Persons and Related Extortion that are of International Significance, 1971, (1971) 65 Am. J. Inťl L. 898.

80 [1979] U.N. Juridical Yrbk. 124.

81 Ibid. (Art. 1).

82 Ibid., at 127 (Art. 12).

83 Ibid. (Art. 13).

84 (1979) 18 Int'l Legal Materials 1422.

85 ibid. (Art. 1).

86 ibid., at 1425–6 (Art. 7).

87 Hudson, , International Legislation (Carnegie Endowment for Int'l Peace, Washington, D.C., 1941) vol. 7, p. 862Google Scholar.

88 ibid., at 865 (Art. 1(2)).

89 Ibid., at 865–6 (Art. 2).

90 See Rovine, , “The Contemporary International Legal Attack on Terrorism”, (1973) 3 Is. Yrbk. on Human Rights 9, 27–32Google Scholar.

91 (1976) 15 Intt'l Legal Materials 1272, id. (Art. 1).

92 See Eichmann v. Attorney General, supra n. 31 at 2052.

93 Charter of the International Military Tribunal, supra n. 10 at 257–260.

94 International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, supra n. 57 at 71–2.

95 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, supra n. 33 at 158 (Art. I).

96 Hague Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, supra n. 71 at 131 (Art. 1); Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, supra n. 74 at 143–4 (Art. 1).

97 Supra n. 49.

98 Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, supra n. 84 at 1426 (Art. 7).

99 The undertaking “to prevent and to punish” is pronounced, e.g., in Art. I of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, supra n. 33 at 158.

100 See, e.g., Art. V, ibid., at 159.

101 See Kelsen, , The Law of the United Nations (London, Stevens, 1950) 48Google Scholar.

102 See Dinstein, , International Treaties (Tel Aviv, Schocken, 1974, in Hebrew) 182–7Google Scholar.

103 See, e.g., Geneva Convention on the High Seas, supra n. 5 at 846 (Art. 19); United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, supra n. 6 at 1289 (Art. 105).

104 See, e.g., Hague Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, supra n. 71 at 131 (Art. 2); Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, supra n. 74 at 144 (Art. 3).

105 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, supra n. 67 at 252 (Art. 36(1)).

106 See Hudson, , International Tribunals, Past and Future (Carnegie Endowment for Intt'l Peace, Washington, D.C., 1944) 182Google Scholar.

107 Kunz, , “The United Nations Convention on Genocide,” (1949) 43 Am. J. Intt'l L. 738, 745CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

108 See Schwarzenberger, , “The Problem of an International Criminal Law,” in International Criminal Law (ed. by Mueller, and Wise, , South Hackensack, N.J., Rothman, 1965) 3, 10, 16Google Scholar.

109 See Woetzel, , The Nuremberg Trials in International Law (London, Stevens; N.Y., Praeger, 1962) 40Google Scholar.

110 Hudson, supra n. 87 at 880.

111 G.A. Res. 260(III) (B), United Nations Resolutions (Series I) (cd. by Djonovich, 1973) vol. 2, p. 241, id.

112 Alfaro, , “Report on International Criminal Jurisdiction,” 1950 (A/CN.4/15), [1950] 2 Yrbk. Intt'l L. Comm'n 1, 16Google Scholar.

113 Sandström, , “Report on International Criminal Jurisdiction,” 1950 (A/CN.4/20), [1950] 2 Yrbk. Intt'l L. Comm'n 18, 21, 23Google Scholar.

114 Report of the International Law Commission to the General Assembly, 2nd Session, supra n. 11 at 378–9.

115 (1952) 46 Am. J. Int'l L., Supp. 1.

116 Ibid. (Arts. 1–2).

117 See Liang, , “The Establishment of an International Criminal Jurisdiction: The First Phase,” (1952) 46 Am. J. Int'l L. 73, 76CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

118 On the differences between the two texts see Liang, , “The Establishment of an International Criminal Jurisdiction: The Second Phase,” (1953) 47 Am. J. Int'l L. 638–657CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

119 1953 Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction, Revised Draft Statute for an International Criminal Court, Basic Documents of the United Nations (ed. by Sohn, , 1956) 100Google Scholar, id.

120 See Kelsen, supra n. 2 at 125–131.

121 Elchmann v. Attorney General, supra n. 31 at 2051–3.

122 ibid., at 2066. See also ibid., at 2069.

123 International Military Tribunal, supra n. 13 at 218.

124 Ibid., at 248.

125 See Manner, , “The Legal Nature and Punishment of Criminal Acts of Violence contrary to the Laws of War,” (1943) 37 Am. J. Int'l L. 407, 407–410CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

126 International Military Tribunal, supra n. 13 at 220–1.

127 Report of the International Law Commission to the General Assembly, 2nd Session, supra n. 11 at 374 (Principle I and Commentary).

128 G. A. Res. 177 (II), United Nations Resolutions (Series I) (ed. by Djonovich, , 1973) vol. I, pp. 302–3Google Scholar. For the background of the Resolution see Dinstein, , The Defence of ‘Obedience to Superior Orders’ in International Law (Leyden, Sijthoff, 1965) 227–8Google Scholar.

129 Report of the International Law Commission to the General Assembly, 3rd Session, 1951 (A/1858), [1951] 2 Yrbk. Int'l L. Comm'n 123, 133–7.

130 Report of the International Law Commission to the General Assembly, 6th Session, 1954 (A/2693), [1954] 2 Yrbk. Int'l L. Comm'n 140, 149–152.

131 Report of the International Law Commission to the General Assembly, 3rd Session, supra n. 129 at 134–5 (Art. 1 and Commentary).

132 See Parry, , “Some Considerations upon the Content of a Draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind,” (1950) 3 Int'l L.Q. 208, 211Google Scholar.

133 See Gross, , “Some Observations on the Draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind”, (1983) 13 Is. Yrbk. on Human Rights 9–48Google Scholar.

134 The reference is to war crimes as a comprehensive category. When every single war crime is analyzed separately, it is found that some crimes are committed chiefly by State organs; some are committed only by private individuals; and some may be committed both by private individuals and by State organs. See Sperduti, , “L'Individu et le Droit International”, (1956) 90 Recueil des Cours 727, 773–4Google Scholar.

135 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, supra n. 33 at 159.

136 Hague Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, supra n. 71 at 131 (Art. 1); Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, supra n. 74 at 144 (Art. 1 (2)).

137 Supra n. 49.

138 [1968] U.N. Juridical Yrbk. 160.

139 Ibid., at 161.

140 See Miller, , “The Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity”, (1971) 65 Am. J. Int'l L. 476, 477–8, 490–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

141 (1974) 13 Int'l Legal Materials 540.

142 ibid., at 540–2 (Arts. 1,6).

143 ibid., at 541 (Art. 2).

144 See Miller, supra n. 140 at 481–3.

145 See, e.g., Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, supra n. 74 at 143 (Art. 1); Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, supra n. 76 at 76 (Art. 2).

146 See the Geneva Conventions on the Protection of War Victims, supra nn. 44–47.

147 See Geneva Convention on the High Seas, supra n. 5 at 849 (Art. 27); United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, supra n. 6 at 1290 (Art. 113).

148 International Military Tribunal, supra n. 13 at 221. Cf. the French official text of the Judgment, Dinstein, supra n. 128 at 149.

149 See In re Krupp and Others (United States Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 1948), 15 I.L.R. 620, 629.

150 Geneva Convention on the High Seas, supra n. 5 at 849 (Art. 27); United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, supra n. 6 at 1290 (Art. 113).

151 In re Flick and Others (United States Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 1947), 14 I.L.R. 266, 269–270Google Scholar.

152 In re Krupp and Others, supra n. 149 at 631.

153 ibid., at 628–631.

154 See Einsatzgruppen Trial (United States Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 1948), 15 I.L.R. 656, 666Google Scholar.

155 Ibid.

156 Ibid.

157 ibid., at 667.

158 ibid.

159 See Oppenheim, L., International Law (London, Longmans, Green & Co., 7th ed., by Lauterpacht, , 1952) vol. 2, pp. 571–2Google Scholar.

160 See Dinstein, supra n. 128 at 80.

161 See, e.g., the clause in regard to participation in the operation of a pirate ship or aircraft, Geneva Convention on the High Seas, supra n. 5 at 846 (Art. 15(2)); United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, supra n. 6 at 1288 (Art. 101 (b).

162 See Dinstein, supra n. 128 at 83–4.

163 In re Hans (Norway, Court of Appeal, 1947), 14 I.L.R. 305, 306.

164 For an analysis of this decision, see Dinstein, supra n. 128 at 203–4.

165 See ibid., at 202–3, and In re Grumpelt (Scuttled U-Boats Case) (British Military Court, Hamburg, 1946), 13 I.L.R. 309.

166 See Glaser, , “L'Ordre Hiérarchique en Droit Pénal International”, (1952–1953) 33 Revue de Droit Pénal et de Criminologie 283, 317–8Google Scholar.

167 peleus Case (British Military Court, Hamburg, 1945), 13 I.L.R. 248, 249Google Scholar.

168 See Dinstein, supra n. 128 at 185–7. See also In re Zimmermann (Holland, Special Court of Cassation, 1949), 16 I.L.R. 552, 553.

169 See Dinstein, supra n. 128 at 1–2, 121.

170 See ibid., at 22.

171 Oppenheim, L., international Law (London, Longmans, Green & Co., 1st ed., 1906) vol. 2, pp. 264–5Google Scholar.

172 See Dinstein, supra n. 128 at 38 et seq.

173 See ibid., at 68 et seq.

174 Charter of the International Military Tribunal, supra n. 10 at 260. On the precise meaning of this Article in view of its travaux préparatoires, see Dinstein, supra n. 128 at 117.

175 International Military Tribunal, supra n. 13 at 221. On the correct interpretation of the Judgment, see Dinstein, supra n. 128 at 147 et seq.

176 See Dinstein, supra n. 128 at 26 et seq.

177 See ibid., at 88, 214.

178 Einsatzgruppen Trial, supra n. 154 at 665.

179 See Underhill v. Hernandez (United States, Supreme Court, 1897), 168 U.S. 250, 252.

180 Kelsen, , “Collective and Individual Responsibility for Acts of State in International Law”, [1948] Jew. Yrbk. Int'l L. 226, 230–1Google Scholar.

181 See Dinstein, supra n. 128 at 62.

182 Charter of the International Military Tribunal, supra n. 10 at 260.

183 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, supra n. 33 at 159.

184 International Military Tribunal, supra n. 13, at 221.

185 Eichmann v. Attorney General, supra n. 31 at 2070–5.

186 German High Command Trial, supra n. 20 at 396.

187 Justice Trial (United States Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 1947), 14 I.L.R. 278, 286–7Google Scholar.

188 Report of the International Law Commission to the General Assembly, 2nd Session, supra n. 11 at 374 (Principle II and Commentary).

189 See Dinstein, , “Diplomatic Immunity from Jurisdiction Ratione Materiae”, (1966) 15 Int'l & Comp.L.Q. 76, 76–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

190 Tokyo Trial (International Military Tribunal for the Far East, 1948), 15 I.L.R. 356, 372.

191 See Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961, (1961) 55 Am. J. Int'l L. 1064, 1075 (Art. 40).

192 Ministries Trial (United States Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 1949), 16 I.L.R. 344, 361Google Scholar.

193 See Dinstein, supra n. 189 at 89.

194 See Schwarzenberger, , The Law of Armed Conflict (London, Stevens, 1968) 509Google Scholar.

195 See Kelsen, supra n. 180 at 231.

196 See Schwarzenberger, supra n. 194 at 508.

197 Supra, nn. 182–183.

198 Supra n. 182.

199 International Military Tribunal, supra n. 13 at 283.

200 See Dinstein, supra n. 128 at 188, 205–6.

201 Supra n. 182.

202 Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, 1946; Minear, , Victors' Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (1971)Google Scholar Appendix, 185, 187.

203 Tokyo Trial, supra n. 190 at 374.