Last updated 10th July 2024: Online ordering is currently unavailable due to technical issues. We apologise for any delays responding to customers while we resolve this. For further updates please visit our website https://www.cambridge.org/news-and-insights/technical-incident
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 22 April 2010
A marked feature of the business and industrial élites of post-colonial India and Indonesia is the dominance within them of minority communities. An Indian government commission in 1965 reported that, of the top 75 business houses which controlled almost half of the non-governmental, non-banking assets in the country, Marwari houses occupied the apex with control of Rs 7.5 billion in assets, followed by the Parsis with Rs 4.7 billion and Gujaratis with Rs 3.8 billion. By 1980 the Parsi Tata group represented the largest industrial house in India, followed by the Marwari Birlas. In Indonesia it is the Chinese who overwhelmingly comprise the business and industrial ĺite. Despite problems with quantifiable data, it has been assessed that the Chinese own, at the very least, 70–75% of Indonesia's private domestic capital and that Chinese business conglomerates such as the Liem and Astra groups dominate medium and large-scale corporate capital.
1 Kochanek, S., ‘Briefcase Politics in India: the Congress Party and the Business Elite’, Asian Survey 27, 12(1987) 1280–1282CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
2 Robison, R., Indonesia: the Rise of Capital (Sydney 1986) 276ffGoogle Scholar; Far Eastern Economic Review 38 (April 7,1983)Google Scholar.
3 Ray, R.K., ‘Chinese Financiers and Chetti Bankers in Southern Waters: Asian Mobile Credit during the Anglo-Dutch Competition for the Trade of the Eastern Archipelago in the Nineteenth Century’, Itinerario 11, 1 (1987) 209–234CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
4 Johnson, G., ‘Problems of Comparison: Colonial India and Indonesia in the Nineteenth Century’, Itinerario 11, 1 (1987)83–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
5 Cf. Bonacich, E., ‘A Theory of Middleman Minorities’ in: Yetman, N.R. and Steele, C. Hoy eds., Majority and Minority: the Dynamics of Racial and Ethnic Relations (2nd ed.; Boston 1975) 77–89;Google ScholarBerghe, P.L.van den, The Ethnic Phenomenon (New York 1981) 137–156Google Scholar.
6 Jenkins, R., ‘Ethnic Minorities in Business: a Research Agenda’ in: Ward, R. and Jenkins, R. eds., Ethnic Communities in Business: Strategies for Economic Survival (Cambridge 1984) 231–232Google Scholar.
7 Liem, T.D., De Distribueerende Tusschenhandel der Chineezen op Java (The Hague 1952) 25–26Google Scholar.
8 Quoted in: Liem, De Distribueerende Tusschenhandel, 27Google Scholar.
9 Kulke, E., The Parsees in India: a Minority as Agent of Social Change (Munich 1974) 33–34Google Scholar.
10 Vcrmeulen, J.T., De Chineezen te Batavia en de Troebelen van 1740 (Leiden 1938) 10–15, 22–27;Google ScholarLiem, , De Distribueerende Tusschenhandel, 30–32Google Scholar.
11 Vermeulen, , De Chineezen te Batavia, 23, 26Google Scholar.
12 Cator, W.J., The Economic Position of the Chinese in the Netherlands Indies (Oxford 1936) 18–20Google Scholar.
13 Rush, J.R., ‘Social Control and Influence in Nineteenth Century Indonesia: Opium Farms and the Chinese of java’, Indonesia 35 (1983) 53–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
14 For a discussion of the background cf. Dobbin, C., ‘Islam and Economic Change in Indonesia circa 1750–1930’ in:Fox, J.J. et al., Indonesia: Australian Perspectives (Canberra 1980) 253–254Google Scholar.
15 Rovers, J.L., ‘Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Inlandsche Katoen-Industrie op Java’, Tijdschrift van Nijverheiden Landbouw in Nederlandsch-Indië 18(1873) 429Google Scholar.
16 Raffles, T.S., The History of Java (Kuala Lumpur 1965) 168Google Scholar.
17 Angelino, P. De Kat, Rapport betreffende eene Gehouden Enquéte naar de Arbeidstoestanden in de Batikkerijen op Java en Madoera III (hereafter Batikrapport 3) (Batavia 1931) 160Google Scholar.
18 Dobbin, , ‘Islam and Economic Change’, 254Google Scholar; Rovers, , ‘Inlandsche Katoen-Industrie op Java’, 422Google Scholar.
19 Rovers, , ‘Inlandsche Katoen-Industrie op Java’, 419–420Google Scholar.
20 Angelino, De Kat, Rapport betreffende eene Gehouden Enquete I (hereafter Batikrapport 1) (Batavia 1930) xivGoogle Scholar.
21 Ibidem, 169.
22 Rovers, , ‘Inlandsche Katoen-Industrie op Java’, 420, 422, 427Google Scholar.
23 Batikrapport 1, xiv.
24 Ibidem, xii, xv–xvi.
25 Ibidem, xvii Batikrapport 3, 160.
26 Batikrapport 1, xv.
27 For a discussion of this policy based on NHM archives cf. Dobbin, C., Islamic Revivalism in a Changing Peasant Economy: Central Sumatra 1784–1847 (London 1983) 214–216Google Scholar.
28 Rovers, , ‘Inlandsche Katoen-Industrie op Java’, 422Google Scholar.
29 Mees, F. Alting, ‘De Indische Groothandel en de Chineesche Lijnwaadhandel’, Economist 42 (1884) 229, 242–243, 248Google Scholar.
30 Cator, , The Economic Position of the Chinese, 70Google Scholar.
31 Poensen, C., ‘Naar en op de Pasar’, Mededeelingen vanwege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap 26 (1882)4, 12–13Google Scholar.
32 Batikrapport 1, 13.
33 Ibidem, 13, 64; Batikrapport 3, 143.
34 Balikrapport 3, 144.
35 Batikrapport 1, 7–8, 12, 85, 148.
36 Ibidem, 10.
37 Ibidem, 6–7.
38 Ibidem, 45, 56, 58.
39 Ibidem, 45–46.
40 Ibidem, 48.
41 Ibidem, 64–66, 84.
42 Angclino, Dc Kat, Rapport betreffende eene Gehouden Enquete 11 (hereafter Batikrapport 2) (Batavia 1931) 3, 7Google Scholar.
43 Ibidem, 4–5, 38–40.
44 Ibidem, 4.
45 Ibidem, 3–5.
46 Ibidem, 3, 10, 15.
47 Ibidem, 11.
48 Ibidem, 269–320.
49 Ibidem, 6.
50 Ibidem, 12–13.
51 Ibidem, 16, 24–32.
52 Ibidem, 212–217, 321; Rovers, , ‘Inlandschc Katoen-Industrie opjava’, 414–415Google Scholar.
53 Batikrapport 2, 222–224Google Scholar.
54 Schwcnkc, G., ‘Dc Wccfindustric in lict Rcgcmschap Bandoeng’, Koloniaal Tijdschrifl 23 (1939) 160Google Scholar; Warmclo, W. van, ‘Ontstaan en Groci van dc Handwcefnijvcrheid in Madjalaja’, Koloniale Sludien 23 (1939) 5–7;Google ScholarOnderzoek naarde Mindere Welvaart der Inlandsche Bevolking op java en Madoera vol. Vladccl I (Batavia 1909) 101–104Google Scholar.
55 Warmclo, Van, ‘Ontstaan en Groci van dc Handvvcefnijvcrheid’, 8Google Scholar; Scliwcnkc, , ‘Dc Wccfindustric’, 159Google Scholar.
56 Warmclo, Van, ‘Ontstaan en Groci van dc Handweefnijverheid’, 9Google Scholar; Scliwcnkc, , ‘Dc Wccfindustric’, 160–161Google Scholar.
57 Batikrapport 1, 95–98.
58 Warmclo, Van, ‘Ontstaan en Groci van dc Handwcefnijverheid’, 11Google Scholar; Schwenkc, , ‘Dc Wecfindustric’, 163Google Scholar; Palmer, I. and Castles, L., ‘The Textile Industry’ in: Glassburncr, B. ed., The Economy of Indonesia: Selected Readings (Ithaca 1971)322Google Scholar.
59 Warmclo, Van, ‘Ontstaan en Groci van dc Handwcefnijverheid’, 17Google Scholar; Scliwcnkc, , ‘De Weefindustrie’, 163Google Scholar.
60 Palmer, and Castles, , ‘The Textile Industry’, 322, ftn. 18Google Scholar.
61 Warmclo, Van, ‘Ontstaan en Groci van dc Handwcefnijverheid’, 16–17;Google ScholarScliwcnkc, , ‘Dc Weefindustric’, 164Google Scholar; Hill, H., ‘The Economics of Recent Changes in the Weaving Industry’, Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies 16 (1980) 83–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
62 Gupta, Ashin Das, Malabar in Asian Trade 1740–1800 (Cambridge 1967) passim, csp. 105Google Scholar.
63 Prakash, Om, The Dutch East India Company and the Economy of Bengal (Princeton 1985) 104–105Google Scholar.
64 Arasaratnam, S., ‘Society, Power, Factionalism and Corruption in Early Madras’, Indica 23 (1986) 131–132;Google ScholarSuntiiaralingam, R., Politics and Nationalist Awakening in South India 1852–1891 (Tucson 1974)25–26Google Scholar.
65 Much of what follows, when not footnoted, is dealt with in greater detail in: Dobbin, C., Urban Leadership in Western India: Politics and Communities in Bombay City 1840–1885 (Oxford 1972)Google Scholar.
66 Guha, A., ‘Parsi Seths as Entrepreneurs 1750–1850’, Economic and Political Weekly (August 1980)Google Scholarpassim. I am grateful to Cyan Pandcy for drawing this article to my attention.
67 Dobbin, , Urban Leadership in Western India, 17–18;Google ScholarGuha, , ‘Parsi Scths as Entrepreneurs’, 113–114Google Scholar.
68 Kulkc, , The Parstes in India, 126Google Scholar.
69 Quoted in: Gordon, A.D.D., Businessmen and Politics: Rising Nationalism and a Modernising Economy in Bombay (New Delhi 1978) 49Google Scholar.
70 Ibidem. 60–63.
71 Ibidem, 50; Kulke, , The Parsees in India, 123–124, 130Google Scholar.
72 Carey, P., ‘Changing Javanese Perceptions of the Chinese Communities in Central Java 1755–1825’, Indonesia 37 (1984) 41CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
73 Batikrapportl, 95–98.
74 Bonacich, , ‘A Theory of Middleman Minorities’, 79–80Google Scholar.
75 Williams, L.E., ‘Chinese Entrepreneurs in Indonesia’, Explorations in Entrepreneurial History 5 (1952) 37–38Google Scholar.
76 Vieming, J.L., Het Chineesche Zakenleven in Nederlandsch-Indie (Weltevreden 1926) 150Google Scholar; Liem, , De Distribueerende Tusschenhandel 58Google Scholar; Cator, , The Economic Position of the Chinese, 65,69, 70–77Google Scholar.
77 Vleming, , Het Chineesche Zakenleven, 69–70;Google ScholarCator, , The Economic Position of the Chinese, 60–61Google Scholar.
78 Batikrapportl, 47–48.
79 Panglaykim, J. and Palmer, I., ‘Study of Entrepreneurialship in Developing Countries: the Development of One Chinese Concern in Indonesia’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 1 (1970)6–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
80 Vleming, , Het Chineesche Zakenleven 76–77, 80Google Scholar; Cator, , The Economic Position of the Chinese, 62Google Scholar.
81 Williams, , ‘Chinese Entrepreneurs in Indonesia’, 41–45Google Scholar.
82 Kulke, , The Parsees in India, 79–80Google Scholar.
83 Ibidem, 138–139.
84 Ibidem, 246–248.
85 Kwee, T. H., The Origins of the Modern Chinese Movement in Indonesia (Ithaca 1969) 13, 15–16Google Scholar.
86 Suryadinata, L., Pribumi Indonesians, the Chinese Minority and China (Kuala Lumpur 1978) 146–147Google Scholar.
87 Kennedy, R.E., ‘The Protestant Ethic and the Parsis’, American Journal of Sociology 68 (1962–1963) 11–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
88 Lütt, J., ‘Max Weber and the Vallabhacharis’, International Sociology 2, 3 (1987) 277–287CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
89 Wang Gungwu, ‘Trade and Cultural Values: Australia and the Four Dragons’ (Keynote address, Asian Studies Association of Australia Seventh Conference, 13 February 1988). Professor Wang's address is not available yet in printed form.
90 Freedman, M., Chinese Lineage andSociety: Fukien and Kwangtung (London 1971) 31, 104–107Google Scholar.
91 Salmon, C. and Lombard, D., Les Chinois de Jakarta: Temples et Vie Collective (Paris 1980) 100, 105–106, 122–124Google Scholar.
92 Schipper, K.M., ‘Neighborhood Cult Associations in Traditional Tainan’ in: Skinner, G.W. ed., The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford 1977) 660–664Google Scholar.
93 Nafziger, E.W., Class, Caste and Entrepreneurship: a Study of Indian Industrialists (Honolulu 1978) 49–50;Google ScholarGordon, , Businessmen and Politics, 62–63;Google ScholarMarkovits, C., Indian Businessmen and Nationalist Politics 1931–1939: the Indigenous Capitalist Class and the Rise of the Congress Party (Cambridge 1985) 17CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
94 , Panglaykim and Palmer, , ‘Study of Entrepreneurialship’, 87–90Google Scholar.
95 Kulke, , The Parsees in India, 48–49Google Scholar.
96 Gutem, V.B. van, ‘Tjina Mindering: eenige Aantekeningen over het Chineesche Geldschieterswezen op Java’,Koloniale Studién 3 (1919) 113–114, 116, 121–122Google Scholar.
97 Skinner, G.W., ‘Introduction: Urban Social Structures in Ch'ing China’ in: Skinner, G.W., The City in Late Imperial China, 544Google Scholar.
98 Jones, S.M., ‘The Ningpo Pang and the Financial Power at Shanghai’ in: Elvin, M. and Skinner, G.W. eds., The Chinese City between Two Worlds (Stanford 1974) 73–84Google Scholar.
99 Timberg, T., The Marwaris: from Traders to Industrialists (New Delhi 1978) 6, 45, 51, 117, 161–166Google Scholar.
100 Markovits, , Indian Businessmen and Nationalist Politics, 22Google Scholar.
101 Singer, M., When a Great Tradition Modernizes: an Anthropological Approach to Indian Civilization (London 1972) 290–297Google Scholar.
102 Bayly, C.A., Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion 1770–1870 (Cambridge 1983) passim but esp. 370–384Google Scholar.
