Hostname: page-component-84b7d79bbc-g5fl4 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-25T20:32:51.271Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Correlation, Causation, and Smoking Initiation among Youths

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 March 2004

MARVIN E. GOLDBERG
Affiliation:
Penn State Universitymgold@psu.edu
Get access

Abstract

Expanded consideration of a variety of concepts and methods, from associative learning to econometrics, lends further support to the accumulated consensus that tobacco advertising plays a role, with other factors, in inducing young people to smoke. A point by point rebuttal of issues raised by both Reitter (JAR 43, 1 [2003]: 12–13) and Taylor and Bonner (this issue) makes the case that tobacco advertising is not an exception to the rule: advertising works and it works in part by building primary demand. On a broader, more paradigmatic note, the role of correlation and causation are discussed within a convergence or triangulation framework.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
© Copyright © 1960-2003, The ARF

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Advertising Age. Editorial: “Again, Ad Bans Not a Solution.” December 16, 1985.
Aitken, P.P., D.R. Eadie, G.B. Hastings, and A.J. Haywood. “Predisposing Effects of Cigarette Advertising on Children's Intentions to Smoke When Older.” British Journal of Addiction 86, 4 (1991): 38390.Google Scholar
Andrews, Rick L., and George R. Franke. “The Determinants of Cigarette Consumption: A Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 10, 1 (1991): 327.Google Scholar
Biener, Lois, and Michael Siegel. “Tobacco Marketing and Adolescent Smoking: More Support for a Causal Inference.” American Journal of Public Health 98, 3 (2000): 40711.Google Scholar
Business Week. “Brands in an Age of Anti-Americanism.” August 4, 2003.
Chaloupka, Frank, and Adit Laixuthai. “U.S. Trade Policy and Cigarette Smoking in Asia.” NBER Working Paper Series 5543 (1996): 120.Google Scholar
Cummings, K.M., C.P. Morley, J.K. Horan, C. Steger, and N-R. Leavell. “Marketing to America's Youth: Evidence from Corporate Documents.” Tobacco Control 11, Suppl 1 (2002): 517.Google Scholar
Dhalla, Nariman, and Sonia Yuspeh. “Forget the Product Life Cycle Concept!Harvard Business Review 54, 1 (1976): 10212.Google Scholar
Evans, Nicola, Arthur Farkas, Elizabeth Gilpin, Charles Berry, and John P. Pierce. “Influence of Tobacco Marketing and Exposure to Smokers on Adolescent Susceptibility to Smoking.” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87, 20 (1995): 153845.Google Scholar
FDA (Food and Drug Administration). “Regulations Restricting the Sale and Distribution of Cigarettes and Smokeless Tobacco to Protect Children and Adolescents; Final Rule.” Federal Register 168, 61 (1996): 44396618.Google Scholar
Fischer, Paul M., Meyer P. Schwartz, John W. Richards, Adam O. Goldstein, and Tina Rojas. “Brand Logo Recognition by Children Aged 3 to 6 Years.” Journal of the American Medical Association 266, 22 (1991): 314548.Google Scholar
FTC. “Report to Congress.” Federal Trade Commission, June 30, 1967.
FTC. “Cigarette Report for 1999.” Federal Trade Commission, 2001: http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/menu-tobac.htm
FTC. “Cigarette Report for 2000.” Federal Trade Commission, 2002: http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/menu-tobac.htm
FTC. “Cigarette Report for 2001.” Federal Trade Commission, 2003: http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/menu-tobac.htm
Godin, Seth. Unleashing the Ideavirus. New York, NY: Hyperion, 2001.
Goldberg, Marvin E.American Media and the Smoking-related Behaviors of Asian Adolescents.” Journal of Advertising Research 43, 1 (2003): 211.Google Scholar
Hazan, A.R., H.L. Lipton, and S.A. Glantz. “Popular Films Do Not Reflect Current Tobacco Use.” American Journal of Public Health 84, 6 (1994): 9981000.Google Scholar
Henke, Lucy L.Young Children's Perceptions of Cigarette Brand Advertising Symbols: Awareness, Affect and Target Market Identification.” Journal of Advertising 24, 4 (1995): 1328.Google Scholar
Kelly, Kathleen J., Michael D. Slater, and David Karan. “Image Advertisements' Influence on Adolescents' Perceptions of the Desirability of Beer and Cigarettes.” Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 21, 2 (2002): 295304.Google Scholar
Johnson, H.H., and T.A. Watkins. “The Effects of Message Repetition on Immediate and Delayed Attitude Change.” Psychonomic Science 22, 2 (1971): 10103.Google Scholar
Lancaster, Kent M., and Alyse R. Lancaster. “The Economics of Tobacco Advertising: Spending, Demand, and the Effects of Bans.” International Journal of Advertising 22, 1 (2003): 4165.Google Scholar
Laugesen, Murray, and Chris Meads. “Tobacco Advertising Restrictions, Price, Income and Tobacco Consumption in OECD Countries.” British Journal of Addiction 86, 10 (1991): 134354.Google Scholar
Leventhal, Howard, and Patricia Keeshan. “Promoting Healthy Alternatives to Substance Abuse.” In Promoting Healthy Alternatives to Substance Abuse, Susan G. Millstein, Anne C. Petersen, and Elena O. Nightingale, eds. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Lewit, Eugene M., Douglas Coate, and Michael Grossman. “The Effects of Government Regulation on Teenage Smoking.” Journal of Law and Economics 24, 3 (1981): 54469.Google Scholar
Lynch, Barbara S., and Richard J. Bonnie. Growing Up Tobacco Free: Preventing Nicotine Addiction in Children and Youths. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1994.
MacKenzie, Scott B., Richard J. Lutz, and George E. Belch. “The Role of Attitude Toward the Ad as a Mediator of Advertising Effectiveness: A Test of Competing Explanations.” Journal of Marketing Research 23, 2 (1986): 13043.Google Scholar
McDonald, Colin. “Children, Smoking and Advertising: What Does the Research Really Tell Us?International Journal of Advertising 12, 3 (1993): 27987.Google Scholar
Mulholland, Joseph P. The Effect of Advertising on the Level and Composition of Cigarette Consumption. Bureau of Economics, Washington DC: Federal Trade Commission, 1989.
Ng, Crystal, and Bradley Dakake. “Tobacco at the Movies: Tobacco Use in PG-13 Films.” 2002: http://masspirg.org/MA.asp?id2=8330&id3=MA
Pechmann, Cornelia, and Susan J. Knight. “An Experimental Investigation of the Joint Effects of Advertising and Peers on Adolescents' Beliefs and Intentions about Cigarette Consumption.” Journal of Consumer Research 29, 1 (2002): 519.Google Scholar
Pechmann, Cornelia, and Chuan-Fong Shih. “Smoking Scenes in Movies and Antismoking Advertisements Before Movies: Effects on Youth.” Journal of Marketing 63, 3 (1999): 126.Google Scholar
Petty, R.A., and D.T. Wegner. “The Elaboration Likelihood Model,” In Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology, S. Chaiken, and Y. Trope, eds. New York, NY: The Guilford Press, 1999.
Pierce, John P., Won S. Choi, Elizabeth A. Gilpin, Arthur J. Farkas, and Charles C. Berry. “Tobacco Industry Promotion of Cigarettes and Adolescent Smoking.” Journal of the American Medical Association 279, 7 (1998): 51115.Google Scholar
Pierce, John P., Won S. Choi, Elizabeth A. Gilpin, Arthur J. Farkas, and Robert K. Merritt. “Validation of Susceptibility as a Predictor of Which Adolescents Take Up Smoking in the United States.” Health Psychology 15, 5 (1996): 35561.Google Scholar
Pierce, John P., Arthur J. Farkas, Nicola Evans, and Elizabeth A. Gilpin. “An Improved Surveillance Measure for Adolescent Smoking?Tobacco Control 4, Suppl 1 (1995): S47S56.Google Scholar
Reitter, Robert N.Comment: ‘American Media and the Smoking-related Behaviors of Asian Adolescents.’Journal of Advertising Research 43, 1 (2003): 1213.Google Scholar
Rousseau, E.W., and D.L. Redfield. “Teacher Questioning.” Evaluation in Education, an International Review Series 4 (1980): 5152.Google Scholar
Saffer, Henry. “Tobacco Advertising and Promotion.” In Tobacco Control in Developing Countries, Prabhart Jha, and Frank J. Chaloupka, eds. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Sawyer, Alan G., and J. Paul Peter. “The Significance of Statistical Significance Tests in Marketing Research.” Journal of Marketing Research 20, 2 (1983): 12233.Google Scholar
Sengupta, Jaideep, Ronald C. Goodstein, and David S. Boninger. “All Cues Are Not Created Equal: Obtaining Attitude Persistence under Low Involvement Conditions.” Journal of Consumer Research 4, 4 (1997): 35161.Google Scholar
Shimp, Terence. “Neo-Pavlovian Conditioning and Its Implications for Consumer Theory and Research.” In Handbook of Consumer Behavior, Thomas S. Robertson, and Harold H. Kassarjian, eds. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1991.
Stockwell, Theresa, and Stanton Glantz. “Tobacco Use Increasing in Popular Films.” Tobacco Control 6, 4 (1997): 28284.Google Scholar
Taylor, Charles R., and P. Greg Bonner. “Comment on ‘American Media and the Smoking-related Behaviors of Asian Adolescents.’Journal of Advertising Research 43, 4 (2003): 41930.Google Scholar
Teague, Claude, Jr. Research Planning Memorandum on the Nature of the Tobacco Business and the Crucial Role of Nicotine Therein. R.J. Reynolds, 1973.
Terre, Lisa, Ronald S. Drabman, and Paul Speer. “Health-Relevant Behaviors in Media.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 21, 16 (1991): 130319.Google Scholar
Urberg, Kathryn A., Shiang-Jeou Shyu, and Jersey Liang. “Peer Influence in Adolescent Cigarette Smoking.” Addictive Behaviors 15, 3 (1990): 24755.Google Scholar
USDHHS. Preventing Tobacco Use among Young People: A Report of the Surgeon General. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 1994.
Webb, E.J., D.T. Campbell, R.D. Schwartz, and L. Sechrest. Unobtrusive Measures: Nonobtrusive Measures: Nonreactive Research in the Social Sciences. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally, 1966.
Weber, S.J.Opinion Change Is a Function of the Associative Learning of Content and Source Factors.” Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, 1972.
Winne, P.H.Experiments Relating Teacher's Use of Higher Cognitive Questions to Student Achievement.” Review of Educational Research 49, 1 (1979): 1350.Google Scholar