¹ This essay takes as its starting point the two articles I published in this journal a decade ago: ‘Imperial business in Africa. Part I: sources’, and ‘Imperial business in Africa. Part II: interpretations’, in J. Afr. Hist., XVIII (1976), 29–48 and 267–90.Google Scholar

² Laboratoire ‘Connaissance du Tiers-Monde’, ed., Entreprises et entrepreneurs en Afrique(XIXet XX siécles) (ParisM, 1983), 2 vols. This publication arose out of a conference in Paris in December 1981.Google Scholar

³ For example the special issue of African Economic History, XII (1983), edited by W. G. Clarence-Smith and entitled ‘Business empires in Equatorial Africa’.. The articles this issue were originally prepared for a workshop held at the School of Oriental and African Studies in May 1982.Google Scholar

⁴ The studies presented to the Paris and London conferences and published in the sources given in notes 2 and 3 above are listed in an appendix to this article. Six of the papers published in Entreprises et entrepreneurs (see note 2) were also published in the Canadian Journal of African Studies, XVI (1982), 279–359, and specialists will need to compare the two versions as there are some differences between them.Google Scholar

⁵ These chapters, which are not listed in the appendix, are: Hélène Verin, ‘“Entrepreneur”, “entreprise”, quelques remarques historiques pour leur définition”; Jacques Marseille, ‘L'investissement privé dans ‘empire colonial: mythes et réalités’; and Philippe Hugon, ‘Essai de typologie des entreprises africaines’, all in vol. I, 25–42, 43–60 and 61–76; and René Gallissot, ‘De la colonisation à l'indépendance, les métamorphoses du couple “entreprise privée-Etat’’, vol. 11, 607–34.Google Scholar

⁶ My article on ‘Imperial business’ attracted criticism on this score when it was given as a seminar paper in 1975. It is interesting to find that what was then considered to be out of date has now become modern– at least for a time.Google Scholar

⁷ A glimpse of the impressive range of research currently under way in France (in one discipline alone) is provided by the lists published regularly in the Revue francaise de science politique. Sir Peter Parker has reviewed the position in Britain for the University Grants Committee: ‘“Speaking for the future”: a review of the requirements of diplomacy and commerce for Asian and African languages and Area Studies’ (February 1986).Google Scholar See also Hopkins, A. G., ‘From Hayter to Parker: African Economic History at Birmingham University, 1964–1986’, African Affairs, LXXXVI (1987).Google Scholar

⁸ For a preliminary survey see Hopkins, ‘Imperial business’, 29–48.Google Scholar

⁹ For such material, see Davies, P. N., Trading in West Africa (London, 1986).Google Scholar

¹⁰ The papers presented to the SOAS workshop (see n. 3 above) are particularly helpful in this regard, as is Gervase Clarence-Smith, ‘Business empires in Angola under Salazar, 1930–1961’, African Economic History, XIV (1985), 1–13.Google Scholar

¹¹ Fieldhouse, D. K., Unilever Overseas: The Anatomy of a Multinational, 1895–1965 (London, 1978).Google Scholar

¹² Swainson, Nicola, The Development of Corporate Capitalism in Kenya, 1918–1977 (London, 1980);Google ScholarKilby, Peter, Industrialization in an Open Economy: Nigeria, 1945–66 (Cambridge, 1969).Google Scholar

¹³ Shenton, Robert W., The Development of Capitalism in Northern Nigeria (London, 1986);Google ScholarNewbury, Colin, ‘Trade and technology in West Africa: the case of the Niger Company, 1900–1920’, J. Afr. Hist, XIX (1978), 551–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁴ Hopkins, ‘Imperial business’, 29–48. See also Roberts, A. D., ‘The earlier historiography of colonial Africa’, History in Africa, v (1978), 153–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁵ Geertz, Clifford, Peddlers and Princes: Social Development and Economic Change in Two Indonesian Towns (Chicago, 1963).Google Scholar

¹⁶ This sentence is intended to convey a general impression; there are also authors who know more about the theory of the subject than I do.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Two helpful guides are Fritz Redlich, ‘The origins of the concepts of “entrepreneur” and “creative entrepreneur”’, Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, 1(1949), 1–7, and Bert F. Hoselitz, ‘The early history of entrepreneurial theory’, ibid., III (1951), 193–220. See also Verin, Hélène, Entrepreneurs, entreprises: histoire d'une idée (Paris, 1982).Google Scholar

¹⁸ Verin, ‘“Entrepreneur”, “entreprise”’, 28–31 (cf. n. 5).Google Scholar

¹⁹ A useful summary, which has an eye on the African context and also comments on Marxist approaches, is Nafziger, E. Wayne, African Capitalism: A Case Study in Nigerian Entrepreneurship (Stanford, 1977), 6–14 and 14–17.Google Scholar

²⁰ Schumpeter, J. A., The Theory of Economic Development (Cambridge, Mass., 1934);Google ScholarRobinson, Joan, The Economics of Imperfect Competition (London, 1933);Google ScholarChamberlin, E. H., The Theory of Monopolistic Competition (Cambridge, Mass., 1933);Google ScholarBerle, A. A. and Means, G., The Modern Corporation and Private Property (New York, 1932);Google ScholarMarris, R., The Economic Theory of ‘Managerial’ Capitalism (London, 1964).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²¹ Guides include: Hawkins, C. J., Theory of the Firm(London, 1973),CrossRefGoogle ScholarArchibald, G. C. (ed.), The Theory of the Firm (Harmondsworth, 1971),Google Scholar and Casson, Mark, The Entrepreneur: Economic Theory (Oxford, 1982).Google Scholar

²² This literature is surveyed in Kilby, Peter (ed.), Entrepreneurship and Economic Development (New York, 1971).Google Scholar

²³ Williamson, O. E., The Economics of Discretionary Behaviour (Englewood Cliffs, 1964);Google Scholaridem, Corporate Control and Business Behaviour (Englewood Cliffs, 1970); Simon, H., Models of Man (New York, 1957);Google ScholarCyert, R. M. and March, J. G., A Behavioural Theory of the Firm (Englewood Cliffs, 1963);Google ScholarAaronovitch, Sam and Sawyer, Malcolm C., Big Business: Theoretical and Empirical Aspects of Concentration and Mergers in the United Kingdom (London, 1975).Google Scholar

²⁴ The journal changed its name to Explorations in Economic History in 1969; but that is another (interesting) story.Google Scholar

²⁵ Business History was founded in 1958, largely as a result of the initiative of Professor Harris, J. R., and was intended to complement the American journal, the Business History Review.Google Scholar

²⁶ Some examples are given in Hopkins, ‘Imperial business’, 267–74.Google Scholar

²⁷ Marx, Karl and Engels, Frederick, Manifesto of tile Communist Party (reproduction of the English edition of 1888; Moscow, n.d.), 46,Google Scholar

²⁸ Today, it is scarcely necessary to document this statement. Evidence remains fullest for West Africa but supporting case studies are now plentiful throughout the continent.Google Scholar

²⁹ It would require more space than is available here to list the extensive literature which has now been produced on this subject. Two recent studies worth citing are van der Laan, H. Laurens, ‘Modern inland transport and the European trading firms in colonial West Africa’, Cahiers d'études africaines, XXI (1982),Google Scholar which has some perceptive comments on ‘the decline of the middlemen’ on pp. 571–2,Google Scholar and Anagbogu, Ifeanyi, ‘The history of the indigenous leather industry in Sokoto and Kano, Northern Nigeria, 1903–1960’ (unpub.Ph.D. thesis, University of Birmingham, 1986), which distinguishes between the fortunes of the various craftsmen-entrepreneurs who made up the industry.Google Scholar

³⁰ An example of a recent case study which is moving in this direction is Edward Alpers, A., ‘State, merchant capital, and gender relations in southern Mozambique to the end of the nineteenth century: some tentative hypotheses’, African Economic History, XIII (1984), 23–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar A valuable overview which has relevance for both pre-colonial and colonial Africa is Lonsdale, John, ‘States and social processes in Africa: a historiographical survey’, African Studies Review, XXIV (1981), 139–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Reference should also be made to the special issue of the Revue franaise d'histoire d'outre-mer, LXIII (1981) entitled ‘Etat et société en Afrique noire’.Google Scholar A brief attempt to sketch the long-run relationship between resources and state power is made in Hopkins, A. G., ‘The World Bank in Africa: historical reflections on the African present’, World Development, XIV (1981) 1473–87.Google Scholar

³¹ The illustrations which follow are examples of important work published during the last ten years (other than the items listed in the appendix), and are not comprehensive. If injustices of omission (a particularly cruel academic fate) have occurred, I shall be happy to receive corrections and to make amends on a future occasion.Google Scholar

³² Examples of work completed in the last decade are: Robin, Regis, ‘La Grande Dépression vue et vécue par une société d'import-export en A.O.F.: Peyrissac (1924–1939)’, Revue francaise d'histoire d'outre-mer, LXIII (1976), 544–54;CrossRefGoogle ScholarPasquier, Roger, ‘La compagnie commerciale et agricole de Ia Casamance: prélude au régime concessionnaire du Congo ?’, in Vansina, J. et al. (eds.), Études africaines: offertes á Henri Brunschwig (Paris, 1982), 189–207;Google ScholarJones, Paula, ‘The United Africa Company in the Gold Coast/Ghana, 1920–1965’(Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1983); Newbury, ‘Trade and technology’; and van der Laan, ‘Modern inland transport’.Google Scholar

³³ Vail, Leroy, ‘Mozambique's chartered companies: the rule of the feeble’, J. Afr. Hist., XVII (1976), 389–416, and the discussion in J. Afr. Hist., XVIII (1977) 283–6;CrossRefGoogle ScholarVail, Leroy and White, Landeg, ‘“Tawani, machambero!”: forced cotton and rice growing on the Zambezi’, J. Afr. Hist., XIX (1978), 239–63;CrossRefGoogle Scholareidem, Capitalism and Colonialism in Mozambique (London, 1980);Google ScholarJewsiewicki, B., ‘Le colonat agricole européen au Congo Beige’, J. Afr. Hist., XX (1979), 559–71;CrossRefGoogle ScholarPhimister, I. R., ‘Meat and monopolies: beef cattle in Southern Rhodesia, 1890–1938’, J. Afr. Hist., XIX (1978), 391–414;CrossRefGoogle ScholarSpencer, Ian, ‘Settler dominance, agricultural production and the Second World War in Kenya’, J. Afr. Hist., XXI (1980), 497–514;CrossRefGoogle ScholarMosley, Paul, The Settler Economies: Studies in the Economic History of Kenya and Southern Rhodesia, 1900–1963 (Cambridge, 1983),CrossRefGoogle Scholar and the discussion between Choate, and Mosley, in the Economic History Review, XXXVII (1984), 409–16;CrossRefGoogle ScholarPalmer, Robin, ‘The Nyasaland tea industry in the era of international tea restrictions, 1933–1950’, J. Afr. Hist., XXVI (1985), 215–39;CrossRefGoogle Scholaridem, ‘White farmers in Malawi: before and after the depression’, African Affairs, LXXXIV (1985), 211–45; Crush, Jonathan S., ‘Settler-estate production, monopoly control, and the imperial response: the case of the Swaziland Corporation Ltd’, African Economic History, VIII (1979), 183–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar The substantial literature on South Africa is best approached through the Journal of Southern African Studies and with the assistance of Keegan, Timothy, ‘Crisis and catharsis in the development of capitalism in South African agriculture’, African Affairs,. LXXXIV (1985), 371–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Two valuable articles which draw attention to the importance of financial speculation are Munro, J. Forbes, ‘Monopolists and speculators: British investment in West African rubber, I905–1914’, J. Afr. Hist., XXII (1981), 263–78,CrossRefGoogle Scholar and idem, ‘British rubber companies in East Africa before the First World War’, J. Afr. Hist., XXIV (1983), 369–79.

³⁴ See Alford, B. W. E.. and Harvey, C., ‘Copperbelt merger: the formation of the Rhokana Corporation, 1930–1932’, Business History Review, LIV (1980), 330–58;CrossRefGoogle ScholarFreund, Bill, Capital and Labour in the Nigerian Tin Mines (London, 1981);Google ScholarRichardson, Peter and van Helten, Jean-Jacques, ‘The development of the South African gold-mining industry, 1895–1918’, Econ. Hist. Rev., XXXVII (1984), 319–40;CrossRefGoogle ScholarInnes, Duncan, Anglo American and the Rise of Modern South Africa (London, 1984);Google ScholarGreenhalgh, Peter, West African Diamonds, 1919–83: An Economic History (Manchester, 1985);Google ScholarRoberts, Andrew, ‘The Gold Boom of the 19305 in eastern Africa’, African Affairs, LXXXV (1986), 545–62;CrossRefGoogle ScholarVellut, Jean-Luc, ‘Les bassins miniers de l'ancien Congo Beige. Essai d'histoire économique et sociale (1900–1960)’, Les Cahiers du CEDAF, VII (1981), 1–70.Google Scholar The most recent research on the City of London is cited in Cain, P. J. and Hopkins, A. G., ‘Gentlemanly capitalism and British expansion overseas. II. New imperialism, 1850–1945’, Econ. Hist. Rev., XL (1987), 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁵ Zinzou-Derlin, Lionel, ‘La Banque de l'Afrique occidentale dans Ia crise’, Revue française d'histoire d'outre-mer, LXIII (1976), 506–18;CrossRefGoogle ScholarDavies, P. N., Sir Alfred Jones: Shipping Entrepreneur Par Excellence (London, 1978);Google ScholarJones, Stephanie, Two Centuries of Overseas Trading: The Origins and Growth of the Inchcape Group (London, 1986);CrossRefGoogle ScholarPorter, A. N., Victorian Shipping, Business and Imperial Policy: Sir Donald Currie, the Castle Line and Southern Africa (London, 1986);Google ScholarMcCormack, Robert L., ‘Airlines and empires: Great Britain and the “Scramble for Africa”, 1919–1939’, Canadian Journal of African Studies, X (1976), 87–105;Google Scholaridem, ‘Man with a mission: Oswald Pirow and South African Airways, 1933–1939’, J. Afr. Hist., XX (1979), 543–57; Huybrechts, Andre, Transports et structures de développement au Congo: étude du progres économique de 1900 á 1970 (Paris, 1970). Important research on Mackinnon and the East African shippingis interest is bing undertaken by Dr J. Forbes Munro, Department of Economic History, University of Glasgow, I am grateful to Dr Munro for allowing me to benefit from reading two of his papers on this subject; see ‘Shipping subsidies and railway guarantees:Google ScholarMackinnon, William, East Africa and the Indian Ocean, 1860–93’, J. Afr. Hist., XXVIII, ii (1987).Google Scholar

³⁶ Barrows, Leyland C., ‘The merchants and General Faidherbe’, Revue franaise d'histoire d'outre-mer, LXI (1974), 236–83;CrossRefGoogle ScholarAndrew, C. M., ‘The French colonialist movement during the Third Republic’, Royal Historical Society Transactions, XXVI (1976), 143–66;CrossRefGoogle ScholarAndrew, C. M. and Kanya-Forstner, A. S., ‘The French “colonial party”; its composition, aims, and influence’, Historical Journal, XIV (1971), 99–128;CrossRefGoogle Scholarííidem, ‘The Group Colonial in the French Chamber of Deputies’, Hist. J., XVII (1974), 837–66; íídem, ‘French business and the French colonialists’, Hist.J., XIX (1976), 981–1000; íídem, France Overseas: Tile Great War and the Climax of French Imperial Expansion (London, 1981); Andrew, C. M., Grupp, P. and Kanya-Forstner, A. S., ‘Le mouvement colonial français et ses principales personnalités, 1890–1914’, Revue francaise d'histoire d'outremer, LXII (1975), 640–73;CrossRefGoogle ScholarAbrams, L. and Miller, D. J., ‘Who were the French colonialists? A reassessment of the Parti Colonial’, Hist. J., XIX (1976), 685–725;CrossRefGoogle ScholarPersell, S. M., The French Colonial Lobby, 1889–1939 (Stanford, 1983);Google Scholar see also now Marseille, Jacques, Empire coloniale et capitalismefrancaise (Paris, 1984). Oddly, a literature of comparable prosopographical detail has yet to be produced for Britain, the ‘nation of shopkeepers’.Google Scholar

³⁷ Some of these difficulties are apparent in Milburn, Josephine F., British Business and Ghanaian Independence (Hanover, New Hampshire, 1977).Google Scholar

³⁸ This theme is developed in Clarence-Smith, Gervase, ‘Business empires in Angola under Salazar, 1930–1961’, Afr. Econ. Hist., XIV (1985), 1–13.Google Scholar Despite the excellent work carried out in recent years on Belgian colonialism in the Congo, notably by Bogumil Jewsiewicki, Jean-Luc Vellut and Jean-Philippe Peemans (following the lead set by Jean Stengers) there still remains considerable scope for evaluating the relationship between the colonial presence and the structure of metropolitan society: did Leopold represent atavistic forces, was he a tool of emerging industrial and financial interests, or was he a modernizing autocrat who saw empire as a means of enabling the monarchy to adapt to the demands of the twentieth century?

³⁹ Hopkins, ‘Imperial business’, Clarence-Smith, W. G., ‘Business empires in Equatorial Africa’, Afr. Econ. Hist., XII (1983), 3–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁰ This suggestion is developed at slightly greater length in Hopkins, ‘Imperial business’, pp. 279–82. In ‘Business empires’, pp. 5–6, Clarence-Smith sets out an interesting threefold division between ‘robber colonialism’, mature colonialism and reformist colonialism. These categories may be particularly apt when applied to Equatorial Africa, but they prompt two questions of a conceptual kind: first, whether the term ‘mature colonialism’ has suflicient precision to describe the structure and strategy of the expatriate firms; and secondly, whether the organic analogy is wholly appropriate, since maturity is more likely to be followed by senility than by reform! However, there is now sufficient interest in the business history of Africa to suggest that these issues will be taken up rather than put aside — as happened ten years ago.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Recognition of this proposition has led to a reappraisal of the intricate relationship between economic interests and colonial policy. For two rather different examples see: Elisabeth Rabut, ‘Le mythe parisien de Ia mise en valeur des colonies africaines à l'aube du XXe siècle: La Commission des Concessions Coloniales, 1898–1912’, J. AIr. Hist., xx (1979), 271–87,Google Scholar and John Lonsdale and Bruce Berman, ‘Coping with the contradictions: the development of the colonial state in Kenya’, ibid., 487–505.

⁴² The authoritative study is Wardle, W. A., ‘A history of the British Cotton Growing Association, 1902–39, with special reference to its operations in Northern Nigeria’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of Birmingham, 1980).Google Scholar

⁴³ Polanyi, Karl, Dahomey and the Slave Trade: An Analysis of an Archaic Economy (Seattle, 1966).Google Scholar The debate over Polanyi's interpretation was at its height during the 1960s. For an interesting recent discussion (and additional references) see Lovejoy, Paul E., ‘Polanyi's “ports of trade”: Salaga and Kano in the nineteenth century’, Canadian Journal of African Studies, XVI (1982), 245–77.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Ehrlich, Cyril, ‘Building and caretaking: economic policy in British tropical Africa, 1890–1960’, Econ. Hist. Rev., XXVI (1973), 649–67.Google Scholar Some of the caretakers became warders. See Jewsiewicki, B., ‘The Great Depression and the making of the colonial economic system in the Belgian Congo’, Afr. Econ. Hist., IV (1977), 162–72.Google Scholar For a recent case study see McCarthy, D. M. P., Colonial Bureaucracy and Creating Underdevelopment: Tanganyika, 1919–1940 (Ames, Iowa, 1982),Google Scholar and also the perceptive review by Wrigley, C. C. in J. Afr. Hist., xxv (1984), 486–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁵ Cain and Hopkins, ‘Gentlemanly capitalism’, part II, pp. 1–26.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Steensgaard, Neils, Carracks, Caravans, and Companies: The Structural Crisis in the European-Asian Trade in the Early Seventeenth Century (Copenhagen, 1972).Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Examples of ‘neutrals’ and minority groups operating in the colonies of foreign powers include: S. E. Katzenellenbogen, ‘British businessmen and German Africa, 1885–1919’, in Ratcliffe, B. M. (ed.), Great Britain and Her World (Manchester, 1975), 237–62;Google Scholarvan der Laan, H. L., The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (The Hague, 1975);Google Scholarvan Helten, J. J., ‘German capital, the Netherlands Railway Company and the political economy of the Transvaal, 1886–1900’, J. Afr. Hist., XIX (1978), 369–90;CrossRefGoogle Scholaridem, ‘La France et l'or des Boers: some aspects of French investment in South Africa between 1890 and 1914’, African Affairs, LXXXIV (1985), 247–63;Google Scholar and Gannon, Margaret, ‘The Basle Mission Trading Company and British colonial policy in the Gold Coast, 1918–1928’, J. Afr. Hist., XXIV (1983), 503–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar The Lebanese community in Senegal is the subject of a Ph.D. thesis currently being researched by Said Boumedouha at the Centre of West African Studies, University of Birmingham.

⁴⁸ Hopkins, ‘Imperial business’, 284–9.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ See Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine, ‘L'impact des intérêts coloniaux: S.C.O.A. et C.F.A.O. dans l'Ouest Africain, 1910–1965’, J. Afr. Hist., XVI (1975), 595–621;CrossRefGoogle Scholareadem, ‘Investissements privés, investissements publics en A.E.F., 1900–1940’,Google ScholarAfr. Econ. Hist., xii (1983),13–31;Google ScholarFieldhouse, Unilever, 560–76; Greenhalgh, West African Diamonds, ch.Google Scholar and van der Laan, H. Laurens, ‘Trading in the Congo: The N.A.H.V, from 1918 to 1955’, Afr. Econ. Hist., XII (1983), 240–59.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ The volume of research on the transnational companies is too large to be listed here. An example of work undertaken in the 1970^s is Carl Widstrand, (ed.), Multinational Firms in Africa (Uppsala, 1975).Google Scholar An important case study is Sklar, Richard, Corporate Power in an African State: The Political Impact of Multinational Mining Companies in Zambia (Berkeley, 1975);Google Scholar a recent work is Mutombo, Kanyana, ‘Les sociétés transnationales en Afrique: forces centripètes, forces centrifuges. Le cas de L'Union Miniére et d'autres sociétés au Katanga’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of Geneva, 1985);Google Scholar and an introduction to the subject is provided by Hertner, P. and Jones, G. (eds.), Multinationals: Theory and History (Aldershot, 1986).Google Scholar

⁵¹ A helpful survey of the current literature can be found in Kirkpatrick, Colin and Nixson, Frederick, ‘Transnational corporations and economic development’, J. Modern African Studies, XIX (1981), 367–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵² Much of the impetus behind this discussion was provided by Warren, Bill, Imperialisin: Pioneer of Capitalism (London, 1980).Google Scholar

⁵³ See Huntington, Samuel P., ‘Traditional organisations in world politics’, World Politics, xxv (1973), 333–68.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ For a lucid and still highly relevant assessment see Rimmer, Douglas, ‘Schumpeter and the underdeveloped countries’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, LXXV (1961), 422–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁵ The literature on this subject is too vast to be listed here. But, in addition to the illustrative case studies cited in n.29 above, particular mention must be made of the valuable studies contributed to the Paris conference by Alpers and Berry, which between them capture the diverse shades of continuity and change affecting two very different societies. (For full references see the Appendix to this article.)Google Scholar

⁵⁶ The following examples, chosen from one country - Nigeria - were all researched during the 1960s, even though (with one exception) they were not published until the 1970s: Kilby, Peter, African Enterprise: The Nigerian Bread Industry (Stanford, 1965);Google ScholarNafziger, African Capitalism;Google ScholarBerry, Sara S., Cocoa, Custom and Socio-Economic Change in Rural Western Nigeria (Oxford, 1975);Google Scholar and Hogendorn, Jan S., Nigerian Groundnut Exports: Origins and Early Development (Zaria, 1978).Google Scholar

⁵⁷ An introduction to the history of women in Africa is no longer needed, but the service sector has yet to attract the attention which, arguably, it deserves. For an interesting discussion of the conceptual issues see Bhagwati, Jagdish, ‘Splintering and disembodiment of services and developing nations’Google Scholar, in idem, Essays in Development Economics, I (Oxford, 1985), 92–103.