Hostname: page-component-84b7d79bbc-c654p Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-28T18:14:33.779Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

SOUTH SUDANESE ARABIC AND THE NEGOTIATION OF THE LOCAL STATE, c. 1840–2011*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2013

Cherry Leonardi
Cherry Leonardi*
Affiliation:
Durham University
*
Author's email: d.c.leonardi@durham.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article explores the history of the creole South Sudanese Arabic language from the mid-nineteenth century to the present day. It analyses the historical evidence of language use in the light of insights drawn from linguistic studies of creolisation to argue that South Sudanese Arabic became an innovative and necessary means of communication among multiple actors within new fields of interaction. The article argues that these fields of interaction were both the product and the arena of local state formation. Rather than marking the boundary of the state, the spread of this creole language indicates the enlarging arenas of participation in the local state. The development and use of South Sudanese Arabic as an unofficial lingua franca of local government, trade, and urbanisation demonstrates that communication and negotiation among local actors has been central to the long-term processes of state formation in South Sudan.

Keywords

South SudanArabiclinguisticsstate formation
Type
Contesting Authority and Identity in Sudan
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 54 , Issue 3 , November 2013 , pp. 351 - 372
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Research for this article was conducted as part of a broader project on the history of South Sudanese chiefship, which received funding at various stages from the AHRC, the British Academy, the British Institute in Eastern Africa, and the Leverhulme Trust. I am very grateful to Will Berridge, Douglas Johnson, Shuichiro Nakao, Noah Salomon, Chris Vaughan, Justin Willis and the reviewers of JAH for their most helpful comments and suggestions.

References

1 South Sudan National Archives, Juba (SSNA) Equatoria Province (EP) 1.C.2, speech by Governor T. R. H. Owen, Bahr el Ghazal Province Council meeting, Wau, 25–6 Jan. 1950.

2 See, for example, ‘Abd al-Rahim, M., Imperialism and Nationalism in the Sudan: A Study in Constitutional and Political Development, 1899–1956 (Oxford, 1969)Google Scholar.

3 There are, for example, distinctive varieties of South Sudanese Arabic associated with the other provincial capitals of Wau, and Miller, Malakal. C., ‘Do they speak the same language? Language use in Juba local courts’, in Ditters, E. and Motzki, H. (eds.), Approaches to Arabic Linguistics: Presented to Kees Versteegh on the Occasion of his Sixtieth Birthday (Leiden, 2007), 607–38Google Scholar; Miller, C., ‘Southern Sudanese Arabic and the churches’, Revue Roumaine de Linguistique, 3–4 (2010), 383–4Google Scholar; Owens, J., ‘Arabic-based pidgins and creoles’, in Thomason, S. G. (ed.), Contact Languages: A Wider Perspective (Amsterdam, 1997), 133–5Google Scholar.

4 Faraclas, N. G., Nigerian Pidgin (London, 1996), 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 Hagmann, T. and Péclard, D., ‘Negotiating statehood: dynamics of power and domination in Africa’, Development and Change, 41:4 (2010), 539–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bayart, J.-F., The Illusion of Cultural Identity (Chicago, 2005), 110Google Scholar.

6 See, for example, Gupta, A., ‘Blurred boundaries: the discourse of corruption, the culture of politics, and the imagined state’, American Ethnologist, 22:2 (1995), 393CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Peter Pels refers briefly to the medium of Swahili, in Pels, P., ‘Creolisation in secret: the birth of nationalism in late colonial Uluguru, Tanzania’, Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, 72:1 (2002), 1–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Miller, C., ‘The relevance of Arabic-based pidgins-creoles for Arabic linguistics’, in Mansur, G. and Doss, M. (eds.), Al-Lugha (Cairo, 2002)Google Scholar, (http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/15/04/27/PDF/lugha-CREOLE.pdf), 27; Tosco, M., ‘A pidgin verbal system: the case of Juba Arabic’, Anthropological Linguistics, 37:4 (1995), 423Google Scholar; Versteegh, K., ‘Leveling in the Sudan: from Arabic creole to Arabic dialect’, International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 99:1 (1993), 65–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Smith, I. and Ama, T. M., Juba Arabic – English Dictionary (Kampala, 2005), iv–vGoogle Scholar.

8 Miller, ‘Do they’, 608.

9 Miller, C., ‘Un parler “argotique” à Juba, sud Soudan’, in Caubet, D., Billiez, J., and Bulot, T. (eds.), Parlers Jeunes, Ici et Là-Bas: Pratiques et Représentations (Paris, 2004), 69–90Google Scholar; Nakao, S., ‘Revising the substratal/adstratal influence on Arabic creoles’, in Hieda, O. (ed.), Challenges in Nilotic Linguistics and More, Phonology, Morphology and Syntax, Studies in Nilotic Linguistics, vol. 5 (Tokyo, 2012), 131Google Scholar; in contrast, see Swigart, L., ‘Cultural creolisation and language use in post-colonial Africa: the case of Sénégal’, Africa, 64:2 (1994), 175–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Miller, ‘Do they’, 621 and 608; Tosco, ‘A pidgin’, 451.

11 Jourdan, C., ‘Pidgins and creoles: the blurring of categories’, Annual Review of Anthropology, 20:1 (1991), 194–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Jourdan, ‘Pidgins’, 196; Pels, ‘Creolisation’, 8. See also Miller, ‘The relevance’; Githiora, C., ‘Sheng: peer language, Swahili dialect or emerging creole?’, Journal of African Cultural Studies, 15:2 (2002), 166CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Owens, J., ‘Creole Arabic: the orphan of all orphans’, Anthropological Linguistics, 43:3 (2001), 357Google Scholar.

14 Gupta, ‘Blurred’; Alexander, J., The Unsettled Land: State-Making and the Politics of Land in Zimbabwe, 1893–2003 (Oxford, 2006), 9Google Scholar; Hagmann and Péclard, ‘Negotiating’, 549–51; Lund, C., ‘Twilight institutions: an introduction’, Development and Change, 37:4 (2006), 678–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Ray, D. I. and Van Rouveroy van Nieuwaal, E. A. B., ‘The new relevance of traditional authorities to Africa's future’, Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law (JLPUL), 37–8 (1996), 1–38Google Scholar; and Hatt, D. G., ‘Establishing tradition: the development of chiefly authority in the western High Atlas mountains of Morocco, 1890–1990’, JLPUL 37–8 (1996), 123–53Google Scholar.

16 Martin, D.-C., ‘A creolising South Africa? mixing, hybridity, and creolisation: (re)imagining the South African experience’, International Social Science Journal, 58:187 (2006), 169CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Justin Willis is similarly critical of the term ‘hybridity’: Willis, J., ‘Hukm: the creolization of authority in Condominium Sudan’, The Journal of African History, 46:1 (2005), 30CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Willis, ‘Hukm’, 31.

18 Swigart, ‘Cultural’, 178.

19 Fabian, J., Language and Colonial Power: The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo, 1880–1938 (Cambridge, 1986), 9Google Scholar; Hagmann and Péclard, ‘Negotiating’, 550–1 and 557. See also Alexander, The Unsettled, 4; C. Vaughan, ‘Negotiating the state at its margins: colonial authority in Condominium Darfur, 1916–1956’ (unpublished PhD thesis, Durham University, 2011); Gupta, ‘Blurred’, 384.

20 For an early application of the term to global cultures, see Hannerz, U., ‘The world in creolisation’, Africa, 57:4 (1987), 546–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For critical discussion, see Sheller, M., ‘Creolization in discourses of global culture’, in Ahmed, S. (ed.), Uprootings/Regroundings: Questions of Home and Migration (Oxford, 2003), 273–94Google Scholar; Stewart, C., ‘Syncretism and its synonyms: reflections on cultural mixture’, Diacritics, 29:3 (1999), 40–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Martin, ‘A creolising’.

21 Fabian, Language, 3.

22 See Johnson, D. H., ‘The structure of a legacy: military slavery in northeast Africa’, Ethnohistory, 36:1 (1989), 72–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Johnson, D. H., ‘Recruitment and entrapment in private slave armies: the structure of the zara'ib in the southern Sudan’, in Savage, Elizabeth (ed.), The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade (London, 1992), 162–73Google Scholar.

23 For detailed histories of this period, see Gray, R., A History of the Southern Sudan, 1839–1889 (Oxford, 1961)Google Scholar; Udal, J. O., The Nile in Darkness (Norwich, 2005 [orig. pub. 1998])Google Scholar.

24 Nakao, ‘Revising’, 128–9.

25 Owens, ‘Arabic-based’, 140–1 and 146; Owens, ‘Creole’, 364; Miller, C., Le Juba Arabic: Une lingua franca du Soudan Méridional: Remarque sur le fonctionnement du verbe (Paris, 1983), 105–18Google Scholar; Miller, ‘The relevance’, 20; Mahmud, U. A., Arabic in the Southern Sudan: History and Spread of a Pidgin-Creole (Khartoum, 1983), 43–4Google Scholar.

26 Werne, F., Expedition to Discover the Sources of the White Nile, in the Years 1840, 1841, Volume II (London, 1849), 133Google Scholar, 46, and 56.

27 Baker, S. W., The Albert N'yanza: Great Basin of the Nile, and Explorations of the Nile Sources (London, 1867 [orig. pub. 1866]), 105Google Scholar and 177–8; Pedemonte, E., ‘A report on the voyage of 1849–1850’, in Toniolo, E. and Hill, R. L. (eds.), The Opening of the Nile Basin: Writings by Members of the Catholic Mission to Central Africa on the Geography and Ethnography of the Sudan, 1842–1881 (New York, 1975), 62Google Scholar.

28 Interview with elderly Bari man, retired engineer, Juba, 26 Aug. 2008.

29 Owens, ‘Arabic-based’, 163; Nakao, ‘Revising’.

30 Gray, A History, 35.

31 Ibid. 45.

32 Petherick, J. and Petherick, K. H., Travels in Central Africa, and Explorations of the Western Nile Tributaries (London, 1869), 141CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33 Leonardi, C., Dealing with Government in South Sudan: Histories of Chiefship, Community and State (Woodbridge, Suffolk, 2013), 34Google Scholar; Johnson, ‘Recruitment’, 170.

34 Schweinfurth, G. A., The Heart of Africa: Three Years' Travels and Adventures in the Unexplored Regions of Central Africa, from 1868 to 1871, Volume I, trans. E. E. Frewer (New York, 1874), 226Google Scholar, 465, and 473.

35 Junker, W., Travels in Africa, During the Years 1875–1878, trans. A. H. Keane (London, 1890), 236Google Scholar; Wilson, C. T. and Felkin, R. W., Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan, Volume II (London, 1882), 99Google Scholar.

36 Wilson and Felkin, Uganda, II, 104, and 107–9; Baker, S. W., Ismailia: A Narrative of the Expedition to Central Africa for the Suppression of the Slave Trade, Organized by Ismail, Khedive of Egypt, Volume II (London, 1874), 48Google Scholar.

37 Felkin, R. W., editor's note, in Pasha, E., Emin Pasha in Central Africa, Being a Collection of His Letters and Journals, ed. G. Schweinfurth, F. Ratzel, R. W. Felkin, G. Hartlaub, trans. R. W. Felkin (London, 1888), 409Google Scholar, emphasis added; Gray, A History, 100–1, 114, and 142–3.

38 Gordon to Augusta, 22 Oct. 1875, 23 Feb. 1876, cited in Gray, A History, 113.

39 Johnson, ‘Recruitment’, 170.

40 Gray, A History, 48.

41 Casati, G., Ten Years in Equatoria (pop. ed., London, 1898), 52–4Google Scholar.

42 Gray, A History, 149–50.

43 Johnson, D. H., ‘Prophecy and Mahdism in the Upper Nile: an examination of local experiences of the Mahdiyya in the southern Sudan’, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 20:1 (1993), 48CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

44 Ibid.; Lane, P. J and Johnson, D. H., ‘The archaeology and history of slavery in South Sudan in the nineteenth century’, in Peacock, A. C. S. (ed.), The Frontiers of the Ottoman World (Oxford, 2009), 523Google Scholar.

45 See also Leopold, M., Inside West Nile: Violence, History and Representation on an African Frontier (Oxford, 2005)Google Scholar.

46 Miller, ‘The relevance’, 22; Owens, ‘Arabic-based’, 155–9.

47 Church Missionary Society Archive, Birmingham (CMS) Accession 409, F1, Rev. F. B. Hadow, Journal for June 1906; The National Archives, London (TNA) Foreign Office (FO) 2/164, E. J. Tickell to his mother, ‘at entrance of River Kaya into Nile, 5 miles north of Kiri’, 17–21 Nov. 1898.

48 National Records Office, Khartoum (NRO) Bahr el Ghazal Province (BGP) 1/7/38, ‘Tonj’, entry in the Eastern District Notebook, 31 Dec. 1933; TNA War Office (WO) 106/231, ‘Report by El Bimbashi Jennings Bramly on his tour of inspection to the Berri Hill and to the inland Baris, October 1908’, Sudan Intelligence Report (SIR) 172, Nov. 1908, App. A, 7–10.

49 NRO Mongalla Province (MP) 1/8/51, A. Cameron, ‘Notes on the Lado Enclave and points in connection with its transfer from the Belgians’, 28 Nov. 1907.

50 Miller, ‘The relevance’, 25–6; James, W., ‘Sudan: majorities, minorities and language interactions’, in Simpson, A. (ed.), Language and National Identity in Africa (Oxford, 2008), 73Google Scholar.

51 Johnson, ‘Structure’, 80–4; CMS Acc. 111, F1/4, A. Shaw, ‘Trek No. 2’, c. 1911.

52 NRO MP 1/8/51, R.C. R. Owen, ‘Notes on Enclave’, 1910; TNA WO 106/6224, R.C. R. Owen, ‘Report on Tour of inspection in Moru and Niambara districts’, June 1911, SIR 205, Aug. 1911, App. B, 9–12; Johnson, D. H., ‘Judicial regulation and administrative control: customary law and the Nuer, 1898–1954’, The Journal of African History, 27:1 (1986), 70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

53 TNA FO 2/201, Lt. Col. Martyr, ‘Report on the Nile District of the Uganda Protectorate’, 15 Apr. 1899; Simonse, S., Kings of Disaster: Dualism, Centralism, and the Scapegoat King in Southeastern Sudan (Leiden, 1992), 103–4Google Scholar.

54 NRO BGP 1/5/28, District Commissioner Aweil to Governor Equatoria, 19 Jan. 1938; SSNA Torit District (TD) 67, C. W. Beer, A/DC Rumbek, ‘Note in [sic] Chief Rok Rec (Bakhit Reihan) Senior Chief of the Aliam Toc section of the Agar Dinka, Tumbek [sic] District’, 1937.

55 NRO Civil Secretary (Civsec) 57/13/53, Equatoria Province Monthly Diary, Dec. 1941.

56 TNA WO 106/231, A. L. Hadow, Maridi Intelligence Report, SIR 173, Dec 1908, App. C.II, 11; NRO Upper Nile Province (UNP) 1/4/22, Governor Ingleson to Civil Secretary, ‘Report on Bahr el Ghazal Province’, 14 May 1935; NRO BGP 1/7/38, ‘Tonj’, entry in the Eastern District Notebook, 31 Dec. 1933.

57 See also J. Giblin, , ‘History, imagination and remapping space in a small urban centre: Makambako, Iringa Region, Tanzania’, in Burton, A. (ed.), The Urban Experience in Eastern Africa, c. 1750–2000 (Nairobi, 2002), 195–6Google Scholar.

58 Fabian, Language; Mazrui, A. A. and Mazrui, A. M., Swahili State and Society: The Political Economy of an African Language (Nairobi, 1995)Google Scholar.

59 NRO Civsec 1/39/104, minute by J. Maffey, 1 Jan. 1927.

60 H. MacMichael, ‘Memorandum on Southern Policy’, in Civil Secretary to Southern Governors, 25 Jan. 1930, appended in ‘Abd al-Rahim, Imperialism, 244–9.

61 See also James, ‘Sudan’, 70.

62 See Sanderson, L. P., ‘Education in the southern Sudan: the impact of government-missionary-southern Sudanese relationships upon the development of education during the Condominium period, 1898–1956’, African Affairs, 79:315 (1980), 157–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

63 Leonardi, Dealing, 61–86.

64 Mahmud, Arabic, 15 and 47–52.

65 Tucker, A. N., ‘The linguistic situation in the Southern Sudan’, Africa, 7:1 (1934), 28–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

66 NRO Civsec 17/1/2, S. Hillelson, ‘Report on Education in Mongalla Province’, 22 Apr. 1922.

67 NRO Civsec 17/1/2, extract from note by Governor-General Maffey when on tour in the south, 12 June 1927.

68 NRO UNP 1/15/131, Matthew, Secretary for Education, ‘Memorandum on the Language Problem of Southern Sudan’, 30 Oct. 1927; NRO UNP 1/4/22, Ingleson, Governor Bahr el Ghazal, to Civil Secretary, 14 May 1935.

69 SSNA Upper Nile Province (UNP) 17.A.2-II, Note by Resident Inspector of Southern Education, 18 Mar. 1936.

70 SSNA UNP 17.A.2-II, Note by Major Logan Gray, District Commissioner, Yei River District, 22 June 1936.

71 SSNA UNP 17.A.2-II, Note by Resident Inspector of Southern Education, 11 Oct. 1936, A/DC Zeraf District to Governor Upper Nile, 15 May 1937, Governor Upper Nile to Education Secretary, 30 June 1937.

72 SSNA UNP 17.A.2-II, DC Bor to Governor Upper Nile, 18 Feb. 1937.

73 NRO Equatoria Province (EP) 2/14/57, El Bimbashi RE Lyth, Equatorial Corps, Sudan Defence Force, Torit, to Equatoria Province Governor Parr, 17 May 1942 and 31 Mar. 1942.

74 NRO EP 2/14/57, Hickson, Resident Inspector of Education, Lalyo, to Governor Parr, 20 Apr. 1942, Cave, Comd. Southern Sub-Area, to Lyth, 3 July 1942. On the oscillating colonial policy towards Kiswahili in Uganda, see Mazrui and Mazrui, Swahili, 45–58.

75 NRO Civsec 1/13/42, Governor Mongalla to Governor Upper Nile, 7 Sept. 1932.

76 Jackson, H. C., Behind the Modern Sudan (London, 1955), 113Google Scholar.

77 Tucker, ‘The linguistic’, 28.

78 Fabian, Language.

79 Jackson, Behind, 113; Rhodes House Library, Oxford MSS Perham 549/5 ff. 1–2, DC Tracey, ‘A Case of Poison’, Yei, 31 Dec. 1939, 31.

80 See Lawrence, B. N., Osborn, E. L., and Roberts, R. L. (eds.), Intermediaries, Interpreters, and Clerks: African Employees in the Making of Colonial Africa (Madison, WI, 2006)Google Scholar.

81 SSNA EP 66.D.8, DC Juba to Governor Equatoria, 30 Jan. 1948.

82 The latter point is argued by Kevlihan, R., ‘Beyond creole nationalism? language policies, education and the challenge of state building in post-conflict southern Sudan’, Ethnopolitics, 6:4 (2007), 514CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

83 See also James, ‘Sudan’.

84 Tucker, ‘The linguistic’, 28.

85 SSNA EP 57.D.10, Rumbek District Monthly Reports, Jan.-Mar. 1937 and Feb. 1940; NRO BGP 1/5/28, District Commissioner (DC) Yirrol to Governor Upper Nile, ‘Report on Yirrol District’, 15 Apr. 1934. See also Carless, T. F. G., ‘Malakal Town’, in Johnson, D. H. (ed.), The Upper Nile Province Handbook: A Report on Peoples and Government in the Southern Sudan, 1931, comp. by C. A. Willis (Oxford, 1995), 312–20Google Scholar.

86 NRO UNP 1/15/131, Secretary for Education, Matthew, ‘Memorandum on the Language Problem of Southern Sudan’, 30 Oct. 1927. See also Mazrui and Mazrui, Swahili, 63.

87 SSNA EP 1.G.2, Lakes District handing-over notes, 1947.

88 NRO Dakhlia 112/14/95, Keen, ‘The tribes of Meridi Sub-district’, 1946.

89 Much to the irritation of one Catholic missionary: Spagnolo, L. M., Bari Grammar (Verona, 1933), 15–16Google Scholar; Owens, ‘Arabic-based’, 168n15.

90 Leonardi, Dealing, 87–106; Johnson, ‘Judicial’.

91 Willis, ‘Hukm’, 50.

92 NRO Dakhlia 57/1/1, Governor H. A. Nicholson, ‘Equatoria Province handing-over notes’, 16 Mar. 1949.

93 C. Miller, ‘Language, identities and ideologies: a new era for Sudan?’, proceedings of the 7th International Sudan Studies Conference, Bergen (2006), (http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/15/04/38/PDF/millerBergen.pdf); Swigart, ‘Cultural’, 180; Fyle, C. M., ‘Official and unofficial attitudes and policy towards Krio as the main lingua franca in Sierra Leone’, in Fardon, R. and Furniss, G. (eds.), African Languages, Development and the State (London, 1994), 44–54Google Scholar; Obeng, S., ‘An analysis of the linguistic situation in Ghana’, African Languages and Cultures, 10:1 (1997), 65–6Google Scholar.

94 Kevlihan, ‘Beyond’, 526.

95 J. Howell, ‘Political leadership and organisation in the southern Sudan’, (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Reading, 1978), 58.

96 Kevlihan, ‘Beyond’.

97 Mazrui and Mazrui, Swahili.

98 Nhial, Abdon Agaw Jok, ‘Ki-Nubi and Juba Arabic: a comparative study’, in Hurreiz, S. H. A. and Bell, H. (eds.), Directions in Sudanese Linguistics and Folklore (Khartoum, 1975), 92Google Scholar; Gbongasuk, N., ‘Simple Arabic: a key for communication and development in Southern Sudan; Part One: a profile of Simple Arabic’, Juba Post (Juba), 2–9 Nov 2007, 2Google Scholar; Calderbank, T., ‘Fi fiyl fi oda de (there is an elephant in the room): an introduction to Juba Arabic’, in McIlwraith, H. (ed.), Multilingual Education in Africa: Lessons from the Juba Language-in-Education Conference (London, 2013), 218Google Scholar; James, ‘Sudan’, 73.

99 Perry, K. H., ‘Sharing stories, linking lives: literacy practices among Sudanese refugees’, in Purcell-Gates, V. (ed.), Cultural Practices of Literacy: Case Studies of Language, Literacy, Social Practice and Power (Mahwah, NJ, 2007), 78–9Google Scholar; Kevlihan, ‘Beyond’, 532–4.

100 Pantuliano, S., Buchanan-Smith, M., Murphy, P., and Mosel, I., The Long Road Home: Opportunities and Obstacles to the Reintegration of IDPs and Refugees Returning to Southern Sudan and the Three Areas. Report of Phase II: Conflict, Urbanisation and Land (London, 2008), 13–14Google Scholar.

101 Gbongasuk, ‘Simple’.

102 Abdon Agaw, ‘Ki-Nubi’, 91–2.

103 Vincent, G. Bureng, ‘Juba Arabic from a Bari perspective’, in Dihoff, I. R. (ed.), Current Approaches to African Linguistics, Volume I (Dordrecht, 1983), 72Google Scholar.

104 Interview with Bari university professor, Juba, 29 Aug. 2008; V. Ismail Wani, ‘Southern culture should not be forgotten’, Juba Post (Juba), 27–31 July 2007, 11.

105 Abdon Agaw, ‘Ki-Nubi’, 89. See also James, W., War and Survival in Sudan's Frontierlands: Voices from the Blue Nile (Oxford, 2007), 244–5Google Scholar.

106 Hutchinson, S., Nuer Dilemmas: Coping with Money, War, and the State (Berkeley, CA, 1996)Google Scholar; A. N. M. Mawson, ‘The triumph of life: political dispute and religious ceremonial among the Agar Dinka of the Southern Sudan’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, 1989).

107 Ahmed, A. G. M. and Rahman, M. A., ‘Small urban centres: vanguards of exploitation: two cases from Sudan’, Africa, 49:3 (1979), 270CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

108 Hill, R. L., Migration to Juba: A Case Study (Juba, 1981), 131Google Scholar; G. O. Huby, ‘Big men and old men – and women: social organization and urban adaptation of the Bari, Southern Sudan’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Trondheim, 1981); Mawson, ‘The triumph’, 90–1; Ring, M. Mangor, ‘Dinka stock trading and shifts in rights in cattle’, in Baxter, P. T. W. and Hogg, R. (eds.), Property, Poverty and People: Changing Rights in Property and Problems of Pastoral Development (Manchester, 1987), 192–205Google Scholar.

109 Mangor Ring, ‘Dinka’, 202–3.

110 Ibid.

111 Leonardi, Dealing, 150–2 and 158–63.

112 Ibid. 199–216; Leonardi, C., Moro, L. N., Santschi, M., and Isser, D. H., Local Justice in Southern Sudan (Washington, DC, 2010), 17–38Google Scholar.

113 Miller, ‘Do they’, 612.

114 Interview with male Bari MP, Juba, 28 Aug. 2008.

115 Abdon Agaw, ‘Ki-Nubi’, 92. See also Fyle, ‘Official’, 47.

116 Bureng Vincent, ‘Juba’, 72. James, W., ‘The multiple voices of Sudanese airspace’, in Fardon, R. and Furniss, G. (eds.), African Broadcast Cultures: Radio in Transition (Oxford, 2000), 200Google Scholar; Miller, ‘Southern’, 387.

117 Miller, ‘Do they’, 619–20.

118 Versteegh, ‘Leveling’, 76; Tosco, ‘A pidgin’, 453–4.

119 Miller, C., ‘Juba Arabic as a way of expressing a Southern Sudanese identity in Khartoum’, in Youssi, A. et al. (eds.), Contemporary Arabic Dialects: Proceedings of the 4th Aida International Conference, Marrakech, 2002 (Rabat, 2003), 114–22Google Scholar, (http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/15/03/99/PDF/Aida4.pdf); Miller, ‘The relevance’, 27; Miller, ‘Southern’, 387; James, ‘The multiple’, 204; Calderbank, ‘Fi fiyl’.

120 R. Wynne-Jones, ‘Cymbeline: from war-ravaged South Sudan to the Globe Theatre’, The Independent (UK), 2 May 2012, (http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/theatre-dance/features/cymbeline-from-warravaged-south-sudan-to-the-globe-theatre-7704215.html).

121 Calderbank, ‘Fi fiyl’, 219–20.

122 See, for example, the studies in Lawrence, Osborn, and Roberts, Intermediaries.

123 Hurreiz, S. H. and Bell, H., ‘Colloquial Arabic: introduction’, in Hurreiz, and Bell, (eds.), Directions, 80–1Google Scholar.

124 Jackson, J., ‘Is there a way to talk about making culture without making enemies?’, Dialectical Anthropology, 14:2 (1989), 134CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

125 Gupta, ‘Blurred’, 375–6.