No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
Right to Peaceful Protest in Nigeria and the Recurrent Syndrome of Brutalization: The #EndSARS Protest Debacle
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 April 2023
Abstract
Protests play a significant role in the political, economic, social and cultural life of our societies. Protests have repeatedly motivated positive social change. Through protesting, individuals and groups express disagreement, opinions and objections to government actions or inactions. Protests bring attention to errors in governance and demand their rectification. The right to peaceful protest is protected under the international and African regional human rights frameworks, including the Nigerian Constitution. In Nigeria, the Public Order Act is designed to support the appropriate and peaceful conduct of peaceful assemblies (protests), meetings and processions. Yet the Nigerian government does not respect the right to peaceful protest, particularly in the case of protests against the government. This can be seen in recent protests against Nigeria's notorious Special Anti-Robbery Squad. This article examines the context of the application of the right to peaceful protest in Nigeria in view of the recent #EndSARS protests.
- Type
- Recent Developments
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of SOAS University of London
Footnotes
*
LLB and BL (Nigeria), LLM and LLD (Pretoria). Postdoctoral research fellow, Department of Public Law, Nelson R Mandela School of Law, University of Fort Hare, East London, Eastern Cape, South Africa; lecturer, Department of General Studies, Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Nigeria.
References
1 TM Ebiede “The massive protests in Nigeria, explained” (26 October 2020) The Washington Post, available at: <https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/10/26/massive-protests-nigeria-explained> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
2 Parkinson, J “Nigeria protests: What's happening and why are people demonstrating against SARS?” (26 October 2020) The Wall Street JournalGoogle Scholar, available at: <https://www.wsj.com/articles/nigeria-protests-whats-happening-and-why-are-people-demonstrating-11603277989> (last accessed 14 February 2023).
3 See Report of Lagos State Judicial Panel of Inquiry on Restitution for Victims of SARS Related Abuses and Other Matters (2021) at 287–91; and Ebiede “The massive protests”, above at note 1. See also, Parkinson “Nigeria protests”, above at note 2.
4 S Busari and N Princewill “Nigerian police arrest protesters at Lekki shooting site” (13 February 2021) CNN News, available at: <https://edition.cnn.com/2021/02/13/africa/nigeria-endsars-lekki-protests-intl/index.html> (last accessed 20 January 2023); PI Williams “Lekki Toll Gate Lagos Nigeria [EndSARS protest]: Police arrest Mr Macaroni, odas on February 13 ‘Occupy Lekki Toll Gate protest’ wit heavy security for Admiralty Plaza” (13 February 2021) BBC Pidgin, available at: <https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/tori-56033351> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
5 Ibid.
6 See for example, O Ojigho “Nigeria: Horrific reign of impunity by SARS makes mockery of anti torture law” (26 June 2020, Amnesty International), available at: <https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/06/nigeria-horrific-reign-of-impunity-by-sars-makes-mockery-of-anti-torture-law/> (last accessed 14 February 2023). See also Nigeria: Time to End Impunity: Torture and Other Human Rights Violations by Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) (June 2020, Amnesty International), available at: <https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr44/9505/2020/en/> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
7 Parkinson “Nigeria protests”, above at note 2.
8 See Werft, M and Ngalle, J “5 Peaceful protests that led to social and political changes” (8 July 2016) Global CitizenGoogle Scholar, available at: <https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/peace-protests-dallas-response/> (last accessed 14 February 2023).
9 AD Hoffman “Black Lives Matter: Pain, protest, and representation” (2017) 7 Midwest Journal of Undergraduate Research 223 at 226 and 227; Williamson, V, Trump, K and Einstein, KL “Black Lives Matter: Evidence that police caused deaths predict [sic] protest activity” (2018) 16/2 Perspectives on Politics 400CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 401. See also “Black Lives Matter: International activist movement” Britannica, available at: < https://www.britannica.com/topic/Black-Lives-Matter> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
10 S Mansoor “93% of Black Lives Matter protests have been peaceful, new report finds” (5 September 2020) Time, available at: <https://time.com/5886348/report-peaceful-protests/> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
11 J Menjivar “Black Lives Matter protests: What's been achieved so far” (13 August 2020) Dosomething, available at: <https://www.dosomething.org/us/articles/black-lives-matter-protests-whats-been-achieved-so-far> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
12 See generally ER Sanches “Zooming in on protest and change in Africa” in ER Sanches (ed) Popular Protest, Political Opportunities, and Change in Africa (2022, Routledge) 1; G Kibanja et al “African perspectives on peaceful social protests” in K Malley-Morrison, A Mercurio and G Twose (eds) International Handbook of Peace and Reconciliation (2013, Springer) 217; and Mavunga, G “#FeesMustFall protests in South Africa: A critical realist analysis of selected newspaper articles” (2019) 7/1 Journal of Student Affairs in Africa 81CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
13 See generally Salam, EA “The Arab Spring: Its origins, evolution and consequences … four years on” (2015) 23/1 Intellectual Discourse 119Google Scholar; and Puspitasari, S “Arab Spring: A case study of Egyptian revolution 2011” (2017) 6/2 Andalas Journal of International Studies 160Google Scholar.
14 A Allmeling and N Amies “An incomplete revolution” (2011), available at: <https://www.dw.com/en/the-arab spring-2011-an-incomplete-revolution/a-15595634-0> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
15 See General Comment No 37 (2020) on the Right of Peaceful Assembly (Article 21), para 6: “Article 21 of the Covenant protects peaceful assemblies wherever they take place … such assemblies may take many forms, including demonstrations, protests, meetings, processions”.
16 For example, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art 20(1); Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights), art 11; and American Convention on Human Rights, art 15.
17 For example, in respect of the regional mechanisms, see: Guidelines on Freedom of Peaceful Assembly (3rd ed, 2019, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, and European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission)); Guidelines on Freedom of Association and Assembly in Africa (2017, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights); and Guidelines for the Policing of Assemblies by Law Enforcement Officials in Africa (2017, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights).
18 General Comment No 37, above at note 15, para 6.
19 For example, after George Floyd's death, thousands took to the streets in the USA, protesting against anti-black racism and in support of the BLM movement. This flame of protest continued to burn in the digital space. On Twitter, people began matching donations to bail funds and people posted plain black squares to Instagram as part of #BlackoutTuesday. See K Rosenblatt “On social media, donation matching raises millions for George Floyd protesters” (1 June 2020) NBC News, available at: <https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us news/social-media-donation-matching-raises-millions george-floyd-protesters-n1221301> (last accessed 20 January 2023); and S Ho “A social media ‘blackout’ enthralled Instagram. But did it do anything?” (13 June 2020) NBC News, available at: <https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/social-media/social media blackout-enthralled-instagram-did it-do-anything-n1230181> (last accessed 20 January 2023). See also I Filippov, E Yureskul and A Petrov “Online protest mobilization: Building a computational model” (paper presented at the 13th International Conference on the Management of Large-Scale System Development, Moscow, Russia, 28–30 September 2020); and Steinert-Threlkeld, ZC “Online social networks and offline protest” (2015) 4/19 EPJ Data Science 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
20 General Comment No 37, above at note 15, para 2.
21 A general comment is a treaty body's interpretation of human rights treaty provisions; it often seeks to clarify the duties of state parties regarding specific provisions of a treaty and suggests approaches to implement those provisions. General comments are important, expert pronouncements on treaty or covenant issues, but are not legally binding. See generally, H Keller and L Grover “General comments of the Human Rights Committee and their legitimacy”in H Keller and G Ulfstein (eds) UN Human Rights Treaty Bodies: Law and Legitimacy (2012, Studies on Human Rights Conventions) 116.
22 General Comment No 37, above at note 15, para 2.
23 Id, paras 8 and 23.
24 Id, para 24.
25 Id, paras 17 and 18.
26 See Amit Sahni v Commissioner of Police and Others civil appeal no 3282 of 2020, para 17.
27 Ibid.
28 “Facilitating peaceful protests” (2014, Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights briefing no 5) at 8, available at: <https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomlatools-files/docman-files/Facilitating%20Peaceful%20Protests%20.pdf> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
29 General Comment No 37, above at note 15, para 42.
30 Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation of Provisions in the ICCPR (E/CN.4/1985/4, annex), para 29.
31 “Public safety means protection against danger to the safety of persons, to their life or physical integrity, or serious damage to their property”: id, para 33.
32 General Comment No 37, above at note 15, para 43.
33 A public order offence is a crime involving acts that interfere with the operations of society and people's ability to function efficiently. Public order is important because, without it, society would lapse into anarchy. It is difficult to have a fully operational society if disorder is allowed to reign unchecked.
34 See IT Sampson “The right to demonstrate in a democracy: An evaluation of public order policing in Nigeria” (2010) 10 African Human Rights Law Journal 432 at 448; and General Comment No 37, above at note 15, para 44.
35 General Comment, ibid.
36 Id, para 47.
37 Iwuoha, VC and Aniche, ET “Protests and blood on the streets: Repressive state, police brutality and #EndSARS protest in Nigeria” (2022) 35 Security Journal 1102CrossRefGoogle Scholar, available at: <https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-021-00316-z> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
38 F Falana “Police permit not required for rallies in Nigeria” (23 January 2014) Premium Times, available at: <https://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/153860-police-permit-required-rallies-nigeria.html> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid.
41 (2006) CHR 181.
42 Falana “Police permit not required”, above at note 38.
43 Ibid.
44 Ibid.
45 Ibid.
46 Inspector General of Police v All Nigeria Peoples Party and Others (2007) 18 NWLR (pt 1066) 457 at 491–99.
47 RA Ekwunife et al “EndSARS protest and centralized police system in Nigeria” in A Farazmand (ed) Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance (2021, Springer Nature Switzerland) 1 at 3.
48 See Oyebode, MO “Violent protests in Nigeria: Causes, dynamics and viable solutions” (2022) 7/2 KIU Journal of Humanities 117Google Scholar at 124; and “End Sars: How Nigeria's anti-police brutality protests went global” (17 October 2020) BBC News, available at: <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54575219> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
49 See “Ban on #EndSARS protest in Abuja: Unconstitutional and undemocratic” (Social Development Integrated Centre press release, 16 October 2020), available at: <https://saction.org/Ban-on-#EndSARS-Protest-in-Abuja-Unconstitutional-and Undemocratic> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
50 N Sunday “Breaking: Police ban #ENDSARS protests, others in Lagos” (20 October 2020) Vanguard, available at: <https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/10/breaking-police-ban-endsars-protests-others-in-lagos/> (last accessed 14 February 2023).
51 N Kalu “#ENDSARS protesters defy ban order, storm National Assembly” (15 October 2020) The Nation, available at: <https://thenationonlineng.net/endsars-protesters-defy-ban-order-storm-national-assembly/> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
52 “Timeline: #EndSARS protests in Nigeria” (22 October 2020) Aljazeera, available at: <https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/10/22/timeline-on-nigeria-unrest> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
53 P Kulkarni “Nigerian protesters stay on the streets defying armed thugs as army begins 2 month long exercise” (20 October 2020) Peoples Dispatch, available at: <https://peoplesdispatch.org/2020/10/20/nigerian-protesters-stay-on-the-streets-defying-armed-thugs-as-army-begins-2-month-long-exercise/> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
54 S Nwite “#EndSARS: Nigeria's generation Z: The force defying the anti-protest norm” (17 October 2020) Tekedia, available at: <https://www.tekedia.com/endsars-nigerias-generation-z-the-force-defying-the-anti-protest-norm/> (last accessed 14 February 2023).
55 Ibid.
56 S Haynes “The Nigerian Army shot dead at least 12 peaceful protesters in Lagos, rights group says. Here's what to know” (23 October 2020) Time, available at: <https://time.com/5902112/nigeria-endsars-protest-shootings/> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
57 “Five demands from #EndSARS protesters” (12 October 2020) Vanguard, available at: <https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/10/five-demands-from-endsars-protesters/> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
58 Ekwunife et al “EndSARS protest”, above at note 47 at 3.
59 “Nigeria: Killing of #EndSARS protesters by the military must be investigated” (Amnesty International press release, 21 October 2020), available at: <https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/10/killing-of-endsars-protesters-by-the-military-must-be-investigated/> (last accessed 20 January 2023). See also Haynes “The Nigerian Army shot dead”, above at note 56; and Report of Lagos State Judicial Panel, above at note 3 at 288–91.
60 “2020 Country reports on human rights practices: Nigeria” (30 March 2021, US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor), available at: <https://www.state.gov/reports/2020country-reports-on-human-right-practices/nigeria/> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
61 Id at 3.
62 “US report on Lekki shooting inaccurate: Amnesty International” (1 April 2021) The Guardian, available at: <https://guardian.ng/news/us-report-on-lekki-shooting-inaccurate-amnesty-international/> (last accessed 15 June 2021).
63 F Owolabi “ASCAB opposes US report on Lekki shooting, saying it's an attempt to cover up killings” (1 April 2021) The Cable, available at: <https://www.thecable.ng/ascab-opposes-us-report-on-lekki-shooting-says-its-an-attempt-to-cover-up-killings> (last accessed 20 January 2023).
64 There has been controversy over the legality of this panel. This controversy was raised when Minister of State for Labour and Employment, Festus Keyamo (SAN), challenged the legality of the #EndSARS panel. Keyamo said it was beyond the panel's jurisdiction to investigate the activities of federal government institutions and officials, such as the Nigeria Police Force and the Nigerian Army: R Ewodage “#EndSARS panel was illegal: Keyamo” (28 November 2021) Channels, available at: <https://www.channelstv.com/2021/11/28/endsars-panel-was-illegal-keyamo/> (last accessed 14 February 2023). In response, Festus Ogun said that Keyamo's position did not reflect the true legal position: F Ogun “#EndSARS panel not illegal: A reply to Festus Keyamo” (29 November 2021) The Cable, available at: <https://www.thecable.ng/endsars-panel-not-illegal-a-reply-to-festus-keyamo> (last accessed 14 February 2023). The Tribunal of Inquiry Law (cap T7, Laws of Lagos State, 2015), sec 1 confers power on the governor of Lagos State to constitute a judicial panel to investigate “the management of any department of the public service”. From the Supreme Court decision in the case of Fawehinmi v Babangida (2003) 3 NWLR (pt 808) 604, it is clear that the federal government can only set up a tribunal for the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja and not for states of the federation. The federal government lacks the power and authority to constitute judicial panels or any tribunal whatsoever for state governments. This fact motivated the National Economic Council to direct the immediate establishment of state-based judicial panels of inquiry to investigate complaints of police brutality or related extrajudicial killings, with a view to delivering justice for all victims of the dissolved SARS.
65 For its other terms of reference, see Report of Lagos State Judicial Panel, above at note 3 at 3–4.
66 Id at 281.
67 Id at 294.
68 Ibid.
69 Id at 287.
70 Ibid.
71 Id at 288.
72 Ibid.
73 Id at 291.
74 Id at 297 and 298.
75 Lekki Toll Gate is a public space located at the Lekki end of the Lekki-Ikoyi Link Bridge, built with public funds for collecting tolls; it also serves as a recreational facility.
76 A Ajala “Photos: Under the sun and in the rain: Protesters occupy Lekki Tollgate 3 days running” (14 October 2020) Vanguard, available at: <https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/10/photos-under-the-sun-and-in-the-rain-protesters-occupy-lekki-tollgate-3-days-running/> (last accessed 15 June 2021); O Adeshokan “Is this Nigeria's Arab Spring moment?” (2 November 2020) FP News, available at: <https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/11/02/is-this-nigerias-arab-spring-moment/> (last accessed 20 January 2023); C Ezeobi “#EndSARS protesters vow to occupy Lekki Tollgate” (9 February 2021) Thisday, available at: <https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2021/02/09/endsars-protesters-vow-to-occupy-lekki-tollgate/> (last accessed 15 June 2021); and Ochi, IB and Mark, KC “Effect of the EndSARS protest on the Nigerian economy” (2021) 9/3 Global Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences 1Google Scholar at 3.
77 General Comment No 37, above at note 15, para 75.
78 See Report of Lagos State Judicial Panel, above at note 3 at 287–91.
79 General Comment No 37, above at note 15, para 24.
80 Id, para 80.
81 Id, para 86.
82 See “UN human rights guidance on less-lethal weapons in law enforcement” (2020) at 29–31.
83 See Report of Lagos State Judicial Panel, above at note 3, para 87.
84 Id, para 88.