1 Although this article focuses on the LRA, other key rebel movements in Uganda include the Uganda National Rescue Fronts I and II, Allied Democratic Forces, People's Redemption Army, Ugandan National Democratic Alliance, Uganda National Liberation Army, Severino Lukoya's Lord's Army, Uganda Christian Democratic Army, West Nile Bank Front and the rebellion of Dan Opiro in Apac: Refugee Law Project (RLP) “Behind the violence: Causes, consequences and the search for solutions to the war in northern Uganda” (working paper no 11, 2004) at 4, note 1. As discussed below, Uganda's amnesty law applies to individuals from any rebel group.

2 Teitel, RTransitional Justice (2000, Oxford University Press) at 51Google Scholar; F Bensouda “International justice and diplomacy” (19 March 2013) New York Times, available at: <http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/20/opinion/global/the-role-of-the-icc-in-international-justice-and-diplomacy.html?_r=0> (last accessed 5 May 2015).

3 Simpson, G “One among many: The ICC as a tool of justice during transition” in Waddell, N and Clark, P (eds) Courting Conflict? Justice, Peace and the ICC in Africa (2008, Royal African Society) 73Google Scholar at 75.

4 J Bitek “A chronology of compassion, or towards an imperfect future” (2012) 6 International Journal of Transitional Justice 394 at 394.

5 Teitel Transitional Justice, above at note 2 at 52 (emphasis added); see Justice in Conflict website at: <http://justiceinconflict.org/> (last accessed 16 January 2015).

6 Latigo, J “Northern Uganda: Traditional-based practices in the Acholi region” in Huyse, L and Salter, M (eds) Traditional Justice and Reconciliation after Violent Conflict: Learning from African Experiences (2008, IDEA) 85Google Scholar at 86.

7 Allen, TTrial Justice: The International Criminal Court and the Lord's Resistance Army (2006, Zed)Google Scholar at 26–32.

8 M Mamdani Imperialism and Fascism in Uganda (1983, Heinemann) at 31.

9 Id at 29.

10 Allen Trial Justice, above at note 7 at 33–35.

11 Ibid.

12 E Baines “The haunting of Alice: Local approaches to justice and reconciliation in northern Uganda” (2007) 1 The International Journal of Transitional Justice 91 at 100.

13 Allen Trial Justice, above at note 7 at 43.

14 Id at 44.

15 Vinci, AArmed Groups and the Balance of Power: The International Relations of Terrorists, Warlords and Insurgents (2008, Routledge)CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 92; C Raleigh, A Linke, H Hegre and J Karlsen “Introducing ACLED-armed conflict location and event data” (2010) 47(5) Journal of Peace Research 1 at 1–10. See Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project ACLED Version 5 (1997–2014), available at: <http://www.acleddata.com/data/version-5-data-1997-2014/> (last accessed 18 March 2015).

16 International Committee of the Red Cross, Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Third Geneva Convention), 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 135, available at: <http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c8.html> (last accessed 5 May 2015).

17 International Committee of the Red Cross, Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 609, available at: <http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b37f40.html> (last accessed 5 May 2015).

18 Zegveld, LThe Accountability of Armed Opposition Groups in International Law (2002, Cambridge University Press)CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 11 and 19.

19 AP II, art 1(1).

20 Vinci Armed Groups, above at note 15 at 91; id, art 13(2).

21 Allen Trial Justice, above at note 7 at 49; id, art 4(2)(a); Common Art 3(1)(a).

22 C Sriram, O Martin-Ortega and J Herman War, Conflict, and Human Rights (2010, Routledge) at 226; AP II, art 4(3)(c); J McKnight “Child soldiers in Africa: A global approach to human rights protection, enforcement and post-conflict reintegration” (2010) 18/2 African Journal of International and Comparative Law 113 at 115.

23 Peschke, K “The ICC investigation into the conflict in northern Uganda: Beyond the dichotomy of peace versus justice” in Brown, B (ed) Research Handbook on International Criminal Law (2011, Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc)Google Scholar 178 at 189; Vinci Armed Groups, above at note 15 at 92.

24 N Grono and A O'Brien “Justice in conflict? The ICC and peace processes” in Waddell and Clark (eds) Courting Conflict?, above at note 3, 13 at 15–16.

25 Prosecutor v Tadić [1999] appeals judgment, ICTY IT-94-1-A, para 84.

26 Nicaragua v United States [1986] ICJ 14.

27 Id, para 104.

28 Id, paras 49–50.

29 Robertson, GCrimes Against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice (4th ed, 2012, Penguin)Google Scholar at 790; Tadić, above at note 25, paras 49–50.

30 See Bosnia v Serbia [2007] ICJ 43.

31 Convention on the Rights of the Child Optional Protocol (CRC OP), art 4(1).

32 Rome Statute, art 8(e)(vii); ICC “Elements of crimes” (2011) ICC-ASP/1/3 at 144.

33 Allen Trial Justice, above at note 7 at 62.

34 Robertson Crimes Against Humanity, above at note 29 at 552; Rome Statute, arts 7(1)(K), 8(1)–(2) and 8(2)(c)(i).

35 Id, arts 7(1)(i)–(2)(i).

36 Id, arts 8(1)–(2)(a); Tadić [1997] ICTY, IT-94-1-T, para 674.

37 Tadić ibid.

38 Human Rights Watch “Unfinished business: Closing gaps in the selection of ICC cases” (2011) at 24–25.

39 AP II, art 17.

40 Id, art 14.

41 UN Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1984), art 1(1); Human Rights Watch “Get the gun!” (2007) at 72.

42 CRC OP, art 4(2).

43 DRC v Uganda [2005] ICJ 168.

44 Amnesty Act, sec 4.1(c).

45 Uganda Amnesty Commission A Handbook for Implementation of the Amnesty Act 2000: Procedures and Principles of Operations (2001) at sec 3.11.

46 P Clark “Creeks of justice” in F Lessa and L Payne (eds) Amnesty in the Age of Human Rights Accountability (2012, Cambridge University Press) 210 at 228.

47 Id at 226.

48 B Afako “Undermining the LRA: Role of Uganda's Amnesty Act” (August 2012) Conciliation Resources, available at: <http://www.c-r.org/comment/undermining-lra-uganda-amnesty-act-barney-afako> (last accessed 14 January 2015).

49 Peace vs Justice, directed by Klaartje Quirjns (Independent Television Service, Inc, 2012).

50 Peschke “The ICC investigation”, above at note 23 at 182.

51 Uganda's Amnesty (Amendment) Act (2006); See Prosecutor v Kallon and Kamara [2004] Appeals Chamber, SCSL, decision on challenge to jurisdiction: Lomé Accord Amnesty, SCSL-2004-15-AR72(E) and SCSL-2004-15-AR72(E), para 71.

52 M Schenkel “Uganda: Amnesty Act without amnesty” (2011) Radio Netherlands Worldwide, available at: <http://www.africa-journalist.com/artikelen/22-verschenen-in-radio-netherlands-worldwide/86-uganda-amnesty-act-without-amnesty> (last accessed 5 May 2015).

53 K Aggar and S Lezhnev “Policy alert: Uganda reinstates key tool to boost defections from the Lord's Resistance Army” (5 June 2013) Enough Project, available at: <http://www.enoughproject.org/blogs/policy-alert-uganda-reinstates-key-tool-boost-defections-lords-resistance-army> (last accessed 14 January 2015).

54 Ibid.

55 Anonymous speaker at the Institute for Integrated Transitions international workshop “Amnesties, mediation and transitions” (Barcelona, 24–25 March 2014) (emphasis original).

56 Human Rights Watch “The meaning of ‘The interests of justice’ in article 53 of the Rome Statute” (June 2005) at 9.

57 ICC press statement “President of Uganda refers situations concerning the Lord's Resistance Army to the ICC” (29 January 2004).

58 W Burke-White “Proactive complementarity: The International Criminal Court and national courts in the Rome System of International Justice” (2008) 49/1 Harvard International Law Journal 53 at 62.

59 Clark “Creeks of justice”, above at note 46 at 234.

60 Prosecutor v Kony et al [2005] warrant, ICC-02/04-01/05, para 42.

61 Ibid.

62 D Howden “The deadly cult of Joseph Kony” (8 November 2008) The Independent, available at: <http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/the-deadly-cult-of-joseph-kony-1001084.html> (last accessed 5 May 2015).

63 S Sácouto and K Cleary “The gravity threshold of the ICC” (2007–08) 23 American University International Law Review 807 at 810–13.

64 Allen Trial Justice, above at note 7 at 2; Peace vs Justice, above at note 49.

65 “Heading to The Hague – Uganda reacts to surrender of top LRA man” (14 January 2015) IRIN News, available at: <http://www.irinnews.org/report/101005/heading-to-the-hague-uganda-reacts-to-surrender-of-top-lra-man> (last accessed 14 January 2015); “LRA rebel Dominic Ongwen surrenders to US forces in CAR” (7 January 2015) BBC News, available at: <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30705649> (last accessed 16 January 2015).

66 Allen Trial Justice, above at note 7 at 48.

67 Id at 80.

68 M Wierda and M Otim “Justice at Juba: International obligations and local demands in northern Uganda” in Waddell and Clark (eds) Courting Conflict?, above at note 3, 21 at 22.

69 International Crisis Group “The Lord's Resistance Army: End game?” (Africa Briefing no 182, 17 November 2011) at 1.

70 Bell, CPeace Agreements and Human Rights (2000, Oxford University Press)Google Scholar at 21.

71 Ratner, S, Abrams, J and Bischoff, JAccountability for Human Rights Atrocities in International Law (3rd ed, 2009, Oxford University Press)Google Scholar at 255.

72 Peschke “The ICC investigation”, above at note 23 at 190–91.

73 Id at 178.

74 Id at 192.

75 Wierda and Otim “Justice at Juba”, above at note 68 at 23.

76 Agreement on Accountability and Reconciliation between the Government of Uganda and the LRA (Juba Agreement) (29 June 2007), arts 4-5. On 19 February 2008, the parties signed an annex to the Juba Agreement (Annex to Juba Agreement), which further elaborated the process by which accountability and reconciliation should be sought; see Annex to Juba Agreement, appendix II. See also Human Rights Watch (2008) “Analysis of the annex to the June 29 Agreement on Accountability and Reconciliation: Human Rights Watch's fourth memorandum on justice issues and the Juba talks”, available at: <http://www.hrw.org/legacy/backgrounder/ij/uganda0208/> (last accessed 5 May 2015).

77 Bell Peace Agreements, above at note 70 at 15–16.

78 Id at 289.

79 Kwoyelo v Uganda [2011] (Kwoyelo) constitutional petition no 036.

80 Human Rights Watch “Justice for serious crimes before national courts: Uganda's ICD” (2012) at 12; “Kwoyelo loses as court guides on who qualifies for amnesty” (13 April 2015) The Observer, available at: <http://www.observer.ug/news-headlines/37285-kwoyelo-loses-as-court-guides-on-who-qualifies-for-amnesty> (last accessed 5 May 2015).

81 “Top Joseph Kony crony Caesar Achellam captured in ambush” (14 May 2012) The Independent, available at: <http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/top-joseph-kony-crony-caesar-achellam-captured-in-ambush-7743537.html> (last accessed 14 January 2015).

82 Human Rights Watch “Get the gun!”, above at note 41 at 72.

83 Office of the Prosecutor “Interests of justice” (internal policy paper, 2007) ICC-OTP-2007 at 6–7.

84 Latigo “Northern Uganda”, above at note 6 at 105–06.

85 Clark “Creeks of justice”, above at note 46 at 230.

86 T Allen “Ritual (ab)use? Problems with traditional justice in northern Uganda” in Waddell and Clark (eds) Courting Conflict?, above at note 3, 47 at 47.

87 Allen Trial Justice, above at note 7 at 4.

88 Peschke “The ICC investigation”, above at note 23 at 188.

89 Peace vs Justice, above at note 49.

90 Allen Trial Justice, above at note 7 at 84.

91 Peace vs Justice, above at note 49; Grono and O'Brien “Justice in conflict?”, above at note 24 at 19.

92 Clark “Creeks of justice”, above at note 46 at 232, quoting L Moreno-Ocampo “The Lord's Resistance Army: War, peace and reconciliation workshop” (London School of Economics, 3 March 2007).

93 Allen Trial Justice, above at note 7 at 6.

94 Id at 12–13.

95 Id at 1.

96 Vinci Armed Groups, above at note 15 at 100–03.

97 Grono and O'Brien “Justice in conflict?”, above at note 24 at 16.

98 Id at 100; LRA Crisis Tracker, available at: <http://lracrisistracker.com/> (last accessed 16 January 2015).

99 Vinci Armed Groups, above at note 15 at 100–03.

100 Id at 100.

101 Id at 103.

102 Id at 94 and 108.

103 Id at 89–94 and 108.

104 Lukwiya was killed by the UPDF in 2006 and he was removed from the case. Otti was reportedly executed in 2007, upon orders from Kony. However, the ICC still considers Otti to be at large.

105 “African Union troops take Uganda rebel for ICC transfer” (14 January 2015) Associated Press, available at: <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/wires/afp/article-2909729/African-Union-troops-Uganda-rebel-ICC-transfer.html> (last accessed 16 January 2015); Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen [2015] ICC-02/04-01/15, available at: <http://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/situations%20and%20cases/situations/situation%20icc%200204/Pages/situation%20index.aspx> (last accessed 19 March 2015). Seleka fighters are attempting to claim a $5m reward offered in 2013 by the US government for information leading to the arrest or capture of Kony, Odhiambo or Ongwen.

106 UN Regional Office for Central Africa “UN welcomes handover of troops to the African Union Regional Task Force” (2012), available at: <http://unoca.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?ctl=Details&tabid=3760&mid=6487&ItemID=539864> (last accessed 16 January 2015).

107 Allen Trial Justice, above at note 7 at 131.

108 Id at 162.

109 Allen “Ritual (ab)use?”, above at note 86 at 49.

110 D Pain “The bending of spears” (1997, International Alert).

111 Clark “Creeks of Justice”, above at note 46 at 225.

112 O Lucima “Mato oput is a cloak for impunity in northern Uganda” (29 October 2007) Northern Uganda Messenger Post, available at: <http://northernugandapost.blogspot.com/2007/10/mato-oput-is-cloak-of-impunity-in.html> (last accessed 14 January 2015).

113 Allen “Ritual (ab)use?”, above at note 86 at 53.

114 Baines “The haunting of Alice”, above at note 12 at 106, note 74.

115 Robertson Crimes Against Humanity, above at note 29 at 514.

116 P Gourevitch We Wish to Inform You that Tomorrow We will be Killed with Our Families: Stories from Rwanda (1998, Farrar, Straus & Giroux) at 78.

117 Uganda - Meeting Joseph Kony produced by Sam Farmar (2006, Journeyman Pictures), available at: <http://www.journeyman.tv/56380/short-films/meeting-joseph-kony.html> (last accessed 14 January 2015).

118 Latigo “Northern Uganda”, above at note 6 at 92.

119 Vinci Armed Groups, above at note 15 at 98.

120 Allen “Ritual (ab)use?”, above at note 86 at 50.

121 G Akell Iteso Thought Patterns in Tales (1981, Dar es Salaam University Press) at 64.

122 Bensouda “International justice”, above at note 2.

123 Rome Statute, arts 16–19 and 53; Office of the Prosecutor “Interests of justice”, above at note 83 at 1–4.

124 Peschke “The ICC investigation”, above at note 23 at 197.

125 Human Rights Watch “The meaning of ‘The interests of justice’”, above at note 56 at 14.

126 Office of the Prosecutor “Interests of justice”, above at note 83 at 1–4.

127 P Clark “Law, politics and pragmatism” in Waddell and Clark (eds) Courting Conflict?, above at note 3, 37 at 42.

128 Bensouda “International justice”, above at note 2.

129 Bell Peace Agreements, above at note 70 at 302.

130 Robertson Crimes Against Humanity, above at note 29 at 552.

131 M El Zeidy “The Ugandan government triggers the first test of the complementarity principle: An assessment of the first state's party referral to the ICC” 5/1 International Criminal Law Review 83 at 102–03.

132 Prosecutor v Kony et al [2009] decision on the admissibility of the case under art 19(1) of the Rome Statute, ICC-02/04-01/05-379 at 27.

133 Kony et al [2009] Pre-Trial Chamber II, id at 27; Uganda's International Criminal Court Act (2010), arts 7–9.

134 Mbazira, C “Prosecuting international crimes committed by the Lord's Resistance Army in Uganda” in Murungu, C and Biegon, J (eds) Prosecuting International Crimes in Africa (2011, Pretoria University Law Press)Google Scholar 197 at 217–18; ICC Act, art 25.

135 Human Rights Watch “Justice for serious crimes”, above at note 80 at 14–15.

136 Burke-White “Proactive complementarity”, above at note 58 at 74.

137 “Heading to The Hague”, above at note 65; “LRA commander Dominic Ongwen appears before ICC in The Hague” (26 January 2015) BBC News, available at: <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30976818> (last accessed 19 March 2015). Ongwen faces seven counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity, with the next ICC hearing set for 24 August 2015.

138 “Heading to The Hague”, ibid.

139 Sácouto and Cleary “The gravity threshold”, above at note 63 at 814 and 852.

140 See Filártiga v Peña-Irala 630 F.2d 876 (2nd cir 1980). Although corporate complicity in human rights violations is not often cited in the Uganda situation, domestic legislation could potentially deter direct or indirect corporate aggravation of human rights abuses. For instance, the US Anti-Terrorism Act could possibly provide civil remedies for US nationals injured by the LRA's intimidation and coercion of civilians where that constitutes acts of “international terrorism” that are proximately caused, with reasonable foreseeability, by an institution's financial engagement with a government or company providing material support to the LRA. See Anti-Terrorism Act (1991) 18 USC, paras 2333(a) and 2331(1). See Rothstein v UBS AG 11-0211-cv (2nd cir 2013), which found a lack of proximate cause between UBS's transfer of currency to the government of Iran and Hamas / Hezbollah terrorist acts injuring the American plaintiff.

141 L Vinjamuri “Deterrence, democracy, and the pursuit of international justice” (2010) 24/2 Ethics & International Affairs at 191–211.

142 Simpson “One among many”, above at note 3 at 75.

143 I Tallgren (“Roundtable: Global humanity and international criminal law” panel, organized by the Association for Law, Culture and the Humanities, hosted by Birkbeck, University of London, 22–23 March 2013).

144 M Goetz “The International Criminal Court and its relevance to affected communities” in Waddell and Clark (eds) Courting Conflict?, above at note 3, 65 at 66–7.

145 Peace vs Justice, above at note 49.

146 The original meaning of tonu ci koka is unclear, however the process is connected to andra odiru nyagbwolo oku si [requesting community members not to revive old wounds]. See S Lamony “Approaching national reconciliation in Uganda: Perspectives on applicable justice systems” (2007, Uganda Coalition for the International Criminal Court), available at <http://www.iccnow.org/documents/ApproachingNationalReconciliationInUganda_07aug13.pdf> (last accessed 5 May 2015) at 26.

147 Annex to Juba Agreement, appendix II, paras 19–22; Lamony, id at 19 and 38; TM Mushanga Criminal Homicide in Uganda: A Sociological Study of Violent Deaths in Ankole, Kigezi and Toro Districts of Western Uganda (1974, Law Africa Publishing) at 13.

148 Afako “Undermining the LRA”, above at note 48.

149 Clark “Creeks of justice”, above at note 46 at 218; Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) Making Peace Our Own (2007) at 47.

150 Hayner, PUnspeakable Truths: Transitional Justice and the Challenge of Truth Commissions (2nd ed, 2001, Routledge)Google Scholar at 20–23.

151 Clark “Creeks of Justice”, above at note 46 at 218 and 232; J McKnight “The anatomy of mass accountability: Confronting ideology and legitimacy in Rwanda's gacaca courts” (2014) 1 Conflict Trends 35.

152 H Onek “Opening remarks” (stakeholder consensus building workshop on the Draft National Transitional Justice Policy, Kampala, Uganda, 21 May 2013).

153 L Hovil and J Quinn “Peace first, justice later: Traditional justice in northern Uganda” (July 2005) RLP working paper no 17 at 13.

154 Teitel Transitional Justice, above at note 2 at 89.

155 Id at 88–89.

156 OHCHR Making Peace Our Own, above at note 149 at 22–23.

157 Mamdani Imperialism, above at note 8 at 1–2 (emphasis added).

158 Ibid.

159 R Esuruku “Horizons of peace and development in northern Uganda” (2011) 11/3 African Journal of Conflict Resolution 111 at 111.

160 Ibid; C Sriram “Justice as peace? Liberal peacebuilding and strategies of transitional justice” (2007) 21/4 Global Society 579 at 580.

161 Bell Peace Agreements, above at note 70 at 195.

162 International Crisis Group “LRA: A regional strategy beyond killing Kony” (28 April 2010, Africa Briefing no 27) at 14–15.

163 “Uganda's forgotten conflict” (1 November 2012) ReliefWeb, available at: <http://reliefweb.int/report/uganda/ugandas-forgotten-conflict> (last accessed 14 January 2015).