¹ The literature on the aims of Western penal systems is vast; for a recent discussion see Walker, N. D., Sentencing in a Rational Society, London, 1969. See also G. H. Boehringer, “Social defence planning in the context of development with special reference to Tanzania”, Proceedings, University of East Africa Society Scientific Conference, Nairobi, 1969.Google Scholar

² See Schur, E., Crimes without Victims, New York, 1965.Google Scholar

³ See Reuck, A. V. S. de & Porter, R. (eds.), The Mentally Abnormal Offender, London, 1968.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴ See the discussion of “speculation” as economic crime in the U.S.S.R., which has no direct counterpart in the common law tradition, in J. S. Read, “Some legal problems in East Africa”, (1966) 2 E.A.L.J. 39.

⁵ The recent development of Western sociology of law offers an exciting challenge to those concerned with African legal processes. See generally Aubert, V. (ed.), Sociology of Law, London, 1969Google Scholar. See also Chambliss, W. J., Crime and the Legal Process, New York, 1969.Google Scholar

^{page 183 note 1} See Lemert, E. M., Human Deviance, Social Problems and Social Control, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1967Google Scholar; Becker, H. S. (ed.), The Other Side: Perspectives on Deviance, London, 1964Google Scholar; Matza, D., Becoming Deviant, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1969Google Scholar. And see the excellent collection of readings from the “interactionists” in Rubington, E. & Weinberg, M. S. (eds.), Deviance: The Interactionist Perspective, London, 1968.Google Scholar

^{page 183 note 2} For some indication of the growing problem in Tanzania, see Appendix B. See also A. B. Lyall, “Anomy theory and deviant response with special reference to African socialist states”, (1970), 3 E.A.L.R. And see K. O. Christiansen, “Industrialization and urbanization in relation to crime and juvenile delinquency”, (1960) 16 International Review of Criminal Policy 3 (hereafter this journal cited “I.R.C.P.”).

^{page 183 note 3} See Tappan, P. W., “Objectives and methods in correction”, in Tappan, P. W. (ed.), Contemporary Correction, New York, 1950, 9. See also John I. Kitsuse, “Societal reaction to deviant behaviour”, in Rubington & Weinberg, op. cit.Google Scholar

^{page 183 note 4} See Lemert, chap. 3, supra., [p. 183, n. 1;] Wilkins, L. T., Social Policy, Action and Research, London, 1967, chap. 4Google Scholar; Cohen, S. (ed.), Images of Deviance, London, 1971Google Scholar. And see generally, Rose, A. (ed.), Human Behaviour and Social Processes: An Interactionist Approach, London, 1962.Google Scholar

^{page 183 note 5} See, e.g., a report in The Standard (Tanzania), July 13th, 1968 (hereafter called “The Standard”); see also the feature article, “Repatriation of prostitutes: Is it the answer”, The Nationalist (Tanzania), August 21st, 1968 (hereafter called “The Nationalist”). One of the reasons for “round ups” to be followed by police deportation to home areas may be the difficulty the police encounter in obtaining convictions in court, see e.g., “Girls in court after swoop”, The Standard, September 29th, 1970, and “Court frees girls held in swoop”, op. cit., September 30th, 1970.

^{page 183 note 6} See Bersani, C. A. (ed.), Crime and Delinquency, London, 1970Google Scholar, section IV. And see Carson, W. G. & Wiles, P. (eds.), Crime and Delinquency in Britain, London, 1971.Google Scholar

^{page 184 note 1} See Wilkins, op. cit. See also Garabedian, P. G. & Gibbons, D. C. (eds.), Becoming Delinquent: Young Offenders and the Correctional Process, Chicago, 1970, esp. Parts I and III.Google Scholar

^{page 184 note 2} See Bryan, J. H., “Apprenticeships in prostitution”, in Clinard, M. B. & Quinney, R. (eds.), Criminal Behaviour Systems, New York, 1967, 277Google Scholar. See also Carleback, J., Juvenile prostitutes in Nairobi, Kampala, E.A.I.S.R., 16 (1963)Google Scholar East African Studies. And see Leslie, J. A. K., A Survey of Dar es Salaam, London, 1963, 232–237Google Scholar. For comments on the situation in West Africa, see Little, K., West African Urbanization, Cambridge, 1966, 128–133Google Scholar. A general survey of prostitution in Africa is contained in Henriques, F., Prostitution and Society, vol. 1, London, 1962, chap. IX.Google Scholar

^{page 184 note 3} See S. H. Kadish, “The crisis of over-criminalization”, (November 1967), 374 The Annals 157; Packer, H. L., The Limits of the Criminal Sanction, Stanford, 1969.Google Scholar

^{page 184 note 4} See R. E. S. Tanner, “The codification of customary law in Tanzania” (1966) 2 E.A.L.J. 105; “The selective use of legal systems in East Africa”, Kampala: M.I.S.R., Conference Paper No. 393, 1965. And see L. Pospisil, “Legal levels and multiplicity of legal systems in human societies”, (1967) 9 Journal Conflict Resolution 1.

^{page 185 note 1} See Milner, A. (ed.), African Penal Systems, London, 1969Google Scholar. See also Elias, T. O. (ed.), The Prison System in Nigeria, Lagos, 1970.Google Scholar

^{page 185 note 2} See generally Cloward, R. A., et al. (eds.), Theoretical Studies in Social Organization of the Prison, New York, 1960Google Scholar, and Cressey, D. R. (ed.), The Prison: Studies in Institutional Organization and Change, New York, 1961.Google Scholar

^{page 185 note 3} On the characteristics of “total institutions”, of which the prison is only one, see Goffman, E., Asylums, New York, 1961.Google Scholar

^{page 185 note 4} See Report of the Advisory Council on the Penal System, Non-custodial and semi-custodial penalties, London, 1970. See also W. C. Turnbladh, “Substitutes for imprisonment”, (May 1954) 293 The Annals 112.

^{page 185 note 5} Alexander Paterson, former Commissioner of Prisons for England and Wales, cited by Fitzgerald, P. J., Criminal Law and Punishment, London, 1962Google Scholar. And see Emery, F. E., Freedom and Justice Within Walls, London, 1970.Google Scholar

^{page 185 note 6} See P. Clairmonte, “A Critique of institutional care”, paper presented to the 20th International Course on Criminology, University of Lagos, August, 1970. For discussions of reform possibilities in institutional settings see Miller, D., “A model of an institution for treating adolescent delinquent boys”, in Klare, H. (ed.), Changing Concepts of Crime and its Treatment, London, 1966, 45Google Scholar; Jones, H., “The approved school: a theoretical model”, in Halmos, P. (ed.), Sociological Review Monograph, No. 9, 99.Google Scholar

^{page 185 note 7} See G. Sykes, Crime and Society, New York, 2nd ed., 1967.

^{page 185 note 8} See G. H. Boehringer, supra, p. 182, n. 1.

^{page 186 note 1} Self-reliance has been the policy of the Prison Service, as clearly enunciated by the Minister for Home Affairs, see The Nationalist, December 30th, 1967.

^{page 186 note 2} See Greene, F., The Wall Has Two Sides, London, 1962Google Scholar. See also W. J. H. Spratt, “Prison in China”, (1953), 8 Howard J. 267, and see Macauley, M., Russia—A New Look at Crime, London, 1966.Google Scholar

^{page 186 note 3} That there are so few inmates (perhaps several thousand) in the main prisons of Peking and Shanghai, as reported by Greene, op. cit., suggests that the Chinese are dealing with deviants in other ways. See also R. W. S. Pollard, “Prisons in China,” (1956) Crim.L.R. 740. And with regard to Cuba, see Frayn, M., The Observer, London, January 19th, 1969.Google Scholar

^{page 186 note 4} J. E. Hall Williams, “Illusions of training and treatment”, proceedings of the 12th International Course on Criminology, Jerusalem, 1962.

^{page 186 note 5} See People in Prison, London, H.M.S.O., Cmnd. 4214, 1969.

^{page 186 note 6} See O. K. Rugimbana, “Various aspects of the imprisonment system in East Africa”, (1966) 2 E.A.L.J. 18. See also Tanzania Prison Service, Annual Report, 1965. For more recent data, see Appendix B.

^{page 186 note 7} Rugimbana, op. cit.; and see A. K. Saikwa, of Kenya, in “An approach to penal administration in East Africa”, (1966) 2 E.A.L.J. 25.

^{page 186 note 8} Hall Williams, op. cit.

^{page 186 note 9} Ibid.

^{page 186 note 10} See e.g., L. T. Wilkins, “Evaluation of penal treatments”, in Halmos, supra, p. 185, n. 6, 237. See also W. Clifford, “The evaluation of methods used for the prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency in Africa south of the Sahara”, (1963) 21 I.R.C.P. 17.

^{page 187 note 1} Hall Williams, op. cit.

^{page 187 note 2} G. H. Boehringer, “Towards a socialist criminology in Africa, with special reference to Tanzania”, (1971) Reviews of Contemporary Law (forthcoming).

^{page 187 note 3} The best material on sanctions in Africa is probably A. Milner, “The sanctions of customary criminal law: a study in social control”, (1965) 1 Nigerian L.J. 173. For an excellent discussion of sanctions and the sanctioning process in a colonial situation elsewhere, see A. W. Bentzon, “The structure of the judicial system and its function in a developing society”, (1966) 10 Acta Sociologica 121.

^{page 187 note 4} See W. J. Chambliss, “A sociological analysis of the law of vagrancy”, in Bersani, supra, p. 183, n. 6, p. 44. See also Rusche, G. & Kirchheimer, O., Punishment and Social Structure, New York, 1939Google Scholar. And see Tobias, J. J., Crime and Industrial Society in the 19th Century, London, 1967.Google Scholar

^{page 187 note 5} See J. S. Read, supra, p. 182, n. 4; and see Read's article, “Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda” in Milner, supra, p. 185 n. 1.

^{page 187 note 6} See Glaser, D., The Effectiveness of a Prison and Parole System, Indianapolis, 1964Google Scholar. See also Dressler, D., Theory and Practice of Probation and Parole, New York, 2nd ed., 1969.Google Scholar

^{page 187 note 7} See H. P. Junod, “Reform of penal systems in Africa”, (1966), 2 E.A.L.J. 31; J. W. Katende, “Why were punishments in pre-European East Africa mainiy compensative rather than punitive?”, (1967), 2 Journal of the Denning Law Society 122; R. E. S. Tanner, “Law enforcement by communal action in Sukumaland, Tanganyika Territory”, (1955), 7 J.A.A. 159. And see V. Goldschmidt, “Primary sanction behaviour”, (1966) 10 Acta Sociologica 173.

^{page 188 note 1} The Nationalist, July 15th, 1968.

^{page 188 note 2} See articles in The Standard, July 16th, 1968; October 26th, 1968; May 12th, 13th, 19th, 1969; July 25th, 1969.

^{page 188 note 3} The Standard, January 2nd, 1970.

^{page 188 note 4} The Nationalist, May 5th, 1969.

^{page 188 note 5} The Times (London), February 16th, 1970 (hereafter catted “The Times”).

^{page 188 note 6} The Standard, October 26th, 1968.

^{page 188 note 7} The Standard, July 15th, 1968.

^{page 188 note 8} The Nationalist, July 15th, 1968.

^{page 188 note 9} The Standard, August 31st, 1969.

^{page 189 note 1} The Standard, July 16th, 1968.

^{page 189 note 2} Interim Constitution, Act 43 of 1965, s.85.

^{page 189 note 3} G. N. No. 219, August 29th, 1969; see Arbitration Tribunals Regs., 1969 (introduced under Magistrates' Courts Act, 1963, cap. 537, s.15(a)).

^{page 189 note 4} Act No. 6 of 1969. For some of the background thinking relating to the introduction of the Tribunals (supra) and Development Committees, see J. K. Nyerere, Freedom and Development, Dar es Salaam, pamphlet, 1968.

^{page 189 note 5} Supplementing one of the earliest reforms to the penal code making it an offence to dissuade others from assisting in self-help schemes, Tanzania Penal Code, cap. 16, s.89(c).

^{page 189 note 6} See the full text of President Nyerere's directive, The Standard, October 18th, 1968.

^{page 189 note 7} For reports of alleged thieves being beaten to death in Tanzania, see The Standard, April 18th and June 17th, 1969. See also The Sunday News (Tanzania), June 23rd, 1968, where a magistrate is reported to have said to an accused who had fled the scene of an automobile accident that he was aware “drivers are often in danger of being killed after such accidents” by local villagers.

^{page 189 note 8} See The Standard, January 2nd, 1968. Another example was the public display and denunciation of alleged seducers of young school girls, at Mwanza Stadium, Sunday News (Tanzania), March 17th, 1968.

^{page 189 note 9} For a description of the research project, see G. H. Boehringer, “Developments in criminology in Tanzania,” Proceedings of the Union of E. Africa Soc. Sci. Conf. (Law Papers), Kampala, December, 1968, s.II.

^{page 190 note 1} See Editorial, The Nationalist, December 12th, 1968. See also report, “Why Operation Vijana?”, The Nationalist, November 25th, 1968. And see a report of a speech by President Nyerere indicating approval of the desire of the youth to “re-invigorate and protect African culture”, The Nationalist, January 2nd, 1969.

^{page 190 note 2} See Boehringer, op. cit., s.III, B. See also E. Bowden, “Convicted offenders: penal practices involving their employment”, (March 1969) E.A.J. 31. The Resettlement Centres opened in Tanzania in 1969 could be a major step in this direction, involving as they do granting of rights such as having one's family at the centre, and the possibility of ultimately turning these minimum security centres into communal villages; see G. Grohs, “The Resettlement of Offenders Act, 1969—A note”, (1969), 2 E.A.L.R. 247.

^{page 190 note 3} See The Standard, February 8th, 1969. Conjugal visits have been rejected in the U.K. recently, The Times, December 1st, 1969.

^{page 190 note 4} See a comprehensive discussion of the subject by L. Verborgen, “Imprisonment and conjugal life: A proposal for legislation”, (Spring, 1967), 3 Hartwick Rev. 67. See also D. P.Jewell, “Mexico's Tres Marias Penal Colony”, (1957), 48 J. of Cr. L., Crim., and Pol. Sci. 410.

^{page 190 note 5} See R. E. S. Tanner, “Sex behind bars”, 27 Transition 28, Kampala, 1966.

^{page 190 note 6} See P. W. Tappan, “The legal rights of prisoners”, (May, 1954) 293 The Annals 99. See also Emery, supra, n. 185, p. 5. And see Parker, T., The Frying Pan, London, 1970, for a description of the experimental psychiatric prison at Grendon, England. Trade unions have been set up for prisoners and ex-prisoners in Scandinavia and West Germany.Google Scholar

^{page 191 note 1} See Rugimbana, supra, p. 186, n. 6. For a report on Kenya's minimum security prison for women, see The Sunday Post (Nairobi), July 7th 1968. At Wami, Tanzania has established a special regime for young male offenders: see The Standard, December 5th, 1969.

^{page 191 note 2} See the report of the Tanzanian Minister for Home Affairs, The Standard, December 5th, 1969, which indicated that a considerable advance had been made in planning prison labour, mainly agricultural, in relation to rehabilitation.

^{page 191 note 3} See M. B. Clinard, “Poverty, development and deviance”, paper presented to the Sociology Workshop, Kampala, 1968; see also P. Marris, African City Life, Kampala, 1968.

^{page 191 note 4} See Boehringer, supra, p. 189, n. 9, s.II, B, f.

^{page 191 note 5} See, e.g., Read, supra, p. 182, n. 4, idem, “Criminal law in the Africa of today and tomorrow”, (1965), 7 J.A.L.

^{page 191 note 6} See Seidman, R. B., A Sourcebook of the Criminal Law of Africa, London, 1966.Google Scholar

^{page 191 note 7} The literature has become vast since the Hart-Devlin debate. A stimulating discussion in the African context is that by J. Costa, “Penal policy and under-development in French Africa”, in Milner, supra, p. 185, n. 1, 365.

^{page 192 note 1} See M. Bomani, “Machinery of justice in a developing society”, (May, 1966), E.A.J.

^{page 192 note 2} See Boehringer, supra, p. 182, n. 1. See also S. N. Bratous, “Lenin's ideas on Soviet law and socialistic legality”, (1970) Review of Contemporary Law, 21–46.

^{page 192 note 3} With regard to the reform of codes, see Gsovski, V. (ed), Legal Sources and Bibliography of Eastern Europe, New YorkGoogle Scholar. See also Gsovski, V. & Grzybowski, K., Government, Law and Courts in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, London, 1959Google Scholar. And see Eorsi, G., “Some problems of making the law”, (1967), 3 E.A.L.J. 272.Google Scholar

^{page 192 note 4} See Chein, I.et. al. (eds.), Narcotics, Delinquency and Social Policy, London, 1964. For an important perspective on the impact of legal sanctions upon types of deviance, see W. J. Chambliss, “The impact of punishment on compliance with parking regulations”, in Chambliss, 388, supra, p. 182, n. 5.Google Scholar

^{page 192 note 5} See D. M. O'Connor, “Soviet procedures in civil decisions: a changing balance between public and civic systems of public order”, Symposium—Law in Soviet Society, Illinois Law Forum, Spring, 1964. See also H. J. Berman & J. W. Spindler, “Soviet Comrades' Courts”, (1963), 38 Wash. L.R. 842.

^{page 192 note 6} See e.g., Nyquist, O., Juvenile Justice, London, 1960Google Scholar; Mannheim, H., Courts for Adolescents, London, 1958. For a description of the operation of Traffic Courts in America, see J. P. Economos, “The traffic problem, traffic laws, and traffic courts”, (May, 1953) 291 The Annals 5. But see G. O. W. Mueller, “How to decrease traffic fatalities: a useful guide for modern legislatures and traffic courts”, (1960) 50 Col. L.R. 944.Google Scholar

^{page 192 note 7} Supra, p. 182, n. 3.

^{page 192 note 8} Supra, p. 182, n. 3, p. 44.

^{page 192 note 9} E. Schur, supra, p. 182, n. 2.

^{page 192 note 10} See Seidman, supra, p. 191, p. 5, 3–81. See also the report by Justice, Legal Penalties: The Need for Revaluation, London, 1959.

^{page 193 note 1} See the material on political crime in Clinard & Quinney, op. cit., p. 5.

^{page 193 note 2} Seidman raises these problems in his chapter on “legality”, supra, p. 191, n. 6.

^{page 193 note 3} See Hyams, E., Killing No Murder, London, 1969. See also R. Quinney, “Crime in political perspective”, (1964) 8 Am. Beh. Sci. 19.Google Scholar

^{page 193 note 4} See Wolfgang, M. & Ferracuti, F., The Sculpture of Violence, London, 1967, 153, 175.Google Scholar

^{page 193 note 5} See generally Ancel, M., Social Defence, London, 1963Google Scholar. See also Schur, E., Narcotic Addiction, London, 1963.Google Scholar

^{page 193 note 6} See The Standard, August 22nd, 1969. See also a report of a Tanu Regional chairman's speech, “Tanu leaders urged to help stamp out crime”, The Nationalist, July 2nd, 1969.

^{page 193 note 7} The Tanzanian Minister for Home Affairs has stated that a lack of funds has left the police short-handed: the Nationalist, July 3rd, 1969; see also, idem April 12th, 1969. In Northern Ireland the inability of the police to enforce the law in certain areas has led people in those areas to set up local “vigilante” groups, and “Citizen Defence Committees”; furthermore, there has been a re-emergence of the illegal Irish Republican Army as an important social control agency; see e.g. reports in The Times, January 12th, 1971, The Guardian, January 11th & 12th, 1971.

^{page 193 note 8} Supra, p. 190, n. 1.

^{page 194 note 1} See, e.g., report of speech by President Nyerere, January 2nd, 1969.

^{page 194 note 2} See, e.g., report, “Police save ‘mini’ girls”, The Nationalist, October 8th, 1968; see also The Standard, October 8th, 1968. And note that seven months before “Vijana” had been announced, informal sanctions were being applied, apparently spontaneously, against people considered to be wearing indecent clothes in public, see The Standard, March 11th, 1968.

^{page 194 note 3} The Nationalist, April 30th, 1969.

^{page 194 note 4} See two cases bearing on these problems, Kinonywaki v. R., [1968] E.A. 195; Isango v. R., [1968] E.A. 140. In the latter, Georges, C. J., stated that a Tanu leader (here a 10-house cell leader) is a political officer and has no police powers “above those which the law allows the citizen”. And see R. Schlesinger, “Voluntary militia and courts”, (1959, No. 2) 11 Soviet Studies 214.

^{page 194 note 5} The Nationalist, July 29th, 1969.

^{page 194 note 6} The Standard, July 19th, 1969.

^{page 194 note 7} See the “Arusha declaration” and “Policy on foreign affairs” in Nyerere, J. K., Freedom and Socialism, London, 1968.Google Scholar

^{page 194 note 8} See The Nationalist, April 12th, 1969.

^{page 194 note 9} See The Standard, January 29th and November 4th, 1968.

^{page 194 note 10} See The Standard, July 5th and September 27th, 1969.

^{page 195 note 1} See the Standard, April 12th, 1969.

^{page 195 note 2} See Nyquist, supra, p. 192, n. 6. See also H. Mannheim, J. Spencer, & G. Lynch, “Magisterial policy in the London juvenile courts”, (1958) 8 B.J. Crim. 13.

^{page 195 note 3} See the landmark case, Re Gault, (1967); 18 L.Ed.2d. 529, see also Lemert, E. M., Social Action and Legal Change: Revolution within the Juvenile Court, Chicago, 1970.Google Scholar

^{page 195 note 4} The Nationalist, November 13th, 1967.

^{page 195 note 5} Supra, p. 195, n. 4.

^{page 196 note 1} See G. Benson, “Prediction methods and young prisoners”, (1959) 9 B.J.D. 192; A. N. Little, “Penal theory, penal reform and borstal practice”, B. J. Crim. 257; W. Epps, “A further survey of female delinquents undergoing borstal training”, (1954) 4 B.J.D. 265.

^{page 196 note 2} See P. D. Scott, “Approved school success rates”, (1964), 4 B.J. Crim. 525; Richardson, H. J., Adolescent Girls in Approved Schools, London, 1969. For a review of latest developments in Britain, following the changes brought by the Children and Young Persons Act, 1969, see “A guide to the Children Act”, New Society, January 1st, 1970. See the background to the new approach in Scotland, Report of the Committee on Children and Young Persons (Scotland), Edinburgh, H.M.S.O., Cmnd. 2306, 1964.Google Scholar

^{page 196 note 3} See Report of the Advisory Council on the Treatment of Offenders: The Treatment of Young Offenders, London, H.M.S.O., 1959. See also Rose, A. G., Schools for Young Offenders, London, 1967Google Scholar; Hood, R. G., Borstal Re-Assessed, London, 1966Google Scholar. And see Carlebach, J., Caring for Children in Trouble, London, 1970.Google Scholar

^{page 196 note 4} See Sparks, R. F. & Hood, R. G. (eds.), The Residential Treatment of Disturbed and Delinquent Boys, Cambridge, 1968.Google Scholar

^{page 196 note 5} The Tanzanian Prison Service has a general policy of classification and segregation, see generally O. K. Rugimbana, supra, p. 186, n. 6. It does not appear that this policy will be applied to the Resettlement Centres, although there does not seem to have been an explicit statement one way or the other; and see L. L. Kato, “Tanzania innovation in penology: reconciling contradictory prison objectives within the context of an overall restructuring of rural society”, paper presented to the Universities of E. Africa Soc. Sci. Conf., Dar es Salaam, December, 1970.

^{page 197 note 1} See Wilkins, L. T., Classification and Contamination, A Home Office Research Unit Research Memorandum, London, 1955.Google Scholar

^{page 197 note 2} See G. Rose, “Administrative consequences of penal objectives”, in Halmos (ed.), op. cit., 211.

^{page 197 note 3} Hall Williams, op. cit., 110.

^{page 197 note 4} See the series of articles on criminal law and public opinion in (1961) Crim. L. Rev. See also B. Kutschinsky, Advances in Scandinavian Studies on Knowledge and Opinion about Law, pamphlet, 1970 (available from the author, Institute of Criminological Science, Copenhagen). And see the series of articles on the subject in (1966), 10 Acta Sociologica.

^{page 1970 note 5} This is the implication of work by Hall Williams, supra, p. 186, n. 4; Miller, supra, p. 185, n. 6, and Jones, op. cit.

^{page 197 note 6} The system in Holland appears to be exceptional in the emphasis placed on non-custodial disposition of offenders; see Stockdale, E., The Court and the Offender, London, 1967.Google Scholar

^{page 197 note 7} Op. cit., 109. See also J. C. Spencer, “Problems in transition: from prison to therapeutic community”, in Halmos, op. cit., 3.

^{page 198 note 1} Although one of the purposes of the Criminal Justice Act, 1967 (England and Wales), was to encourage more liberal use of bail, there was in 1968 an increase of 3,000 in the number of persons remanded in custody who were not sentenced to imprisonment, Report of the Prison Department, 1968; Statistical Tables, London, H.M.S.O., 1969. See generally Bottomley, K., Prison Before Trial, London; 1970Google Scholar, and Dell, S., Silent in Court, London, 1971.Google Scholar

^{page 198 note 2} See Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on the Business of the Criminal Courts, London, H.M.S.O., Cmnd. 1289, 1961. See also Boehringer, supra, p. 189, n. 9, s.III, C 1.

^{page 198 note 3} See R. F. Sparks, “Sentencing by magistrates: some facts of life” in Halmos (ed.), op. cit., 71. See also A. Milner, “Sentencing patterns in Nigeria”, in Milner, op. cit., 261.

^{page 198 note 4} See Hood, R. G., Sentencing in Magistrates Courts, London, 1962Google Scholar; Green, E., Judicial Attitudes in Sentencing London, 1961. See also R. F. Sparks, “The decision to remand for mental examination”, (1966), 6 B.J. Crim. 6.Google Scholar

^{page 198 note 5} See Stockdale, op. cit., 99.

^{page 199 note 1} The Minimum Sentences Act, 1963 (Act 29), cap. 526, came into effect in June, 1963. See J. S. Read, “Minimum sentences in Tanzania”, [1965] J.A.L. 20; J. S. Read, “Kenya Tanzania and Uganda”, in Milner (ed.), op. cit., 149–152. See also Kato, op. cit., 5–13.

^{page 199 note 2} See, e.g., Andry, R. G., The Short Term Prisoner, London, 1963Google Scholar. But see Bernsten, K. & Christiansen, K. O., “A re-socialization experiment with short-term offenders”, in Christiansen, K. O. (ed.), Scandinavian Studies in Criminology, vol. 1, London, 1965.Google Scholar

^{page 199 note 3} See Rugimbana, op. cit., 21–22.

^{page 199 note 4} See Stockdale, op. cit., 100.

^{page 199 note 5} Report of the Commissioner for Social Welfare, 1967, Dar es Salaam, 1968.

^{page 199 note 6} But see the disappointing research report, Probationers in their Social Environment, London, H.M.S.O., 1969. See also a research report by R. J. A. Mwaikasu & L. J. A. Mwamasika, A Survey of Probation in Magistrates Courts (Dar es Salaam) (unpublished manuscript in the writer's files).

^{page 200 note 1} Saikwa, supra, p. 186, n. 7.

^{page 200 note 2} Respectively the national women's organization (U.W.T.); the national trade union (N.U.T.A.); the party youth organization (T.Y.L.) and the party (Tanu).

^{page 200 note 3} See M. Macaulay, supra, p. 186, n. 2.

^{page 200 note 4} See Stockdale, op. cit., 100. See also International Prisoners' Aid Association, “The role and potential value of volunteers in social defence”, (1966) 24 I.R.C.P. 69.

^{page 200 note 5} See, e.g., Tanzania Criminal Procedure Code, cap. 20, ss.308–310. See also report describing a new system of surveillance of all former prisoners, The Standard, August 29th, 1969.

^{page 200 note 6} See, e.g. Tanzania, Penal Code, cap. 16, ss.38, 38(a), (b).

^{page 201 note 1} See, e.g., Tanzania Criminal Procedure Code, cap. 20, s.294A. See also Council of Europe, Suspended Sentence, Probation and other Alternatives to Prison Sentences, Strasbourg, 1966.

^{page 201 note 2} See M. Sherlock, “The suspended sentence: what has gone wrong”, 120 N.L.J. 1144 December 10th, 1970.

^{page 201 note 3} See J. S. Read, “Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda”, in Milner, op. cit., 148–149.

^{page 201 note 4} See Bowden, supra, p. 190, n. 2. See also M. H. Cooper & R. D. King, “Social and economic problems of prisoners' work” in Halmos, op. cit., 145. And see M. Lopez-Rey, “Some considerations on the character and organization of prison labor”, (1958) 49 J. Crim. L., Crim, and Pol. Sci. 26.

^{page 202 note 1} See Grupp, S. E., “Work release and the misdemeanant”, in Gold, H. & Scarpitti, F. R. (eds.), Combatting Social Problems, New York, 1967, 332.Google Scholar

^{page 202 note 2} Walker, N. D., Crime and Punishment in Britain, 2nd ed., Edinburgh, 1968.Google Scholar

^{page 202 note 3} See, e.g., Tanzania, Criminal Procedure Code, s. 134. See also Rep. v. Said Ibrahim, [1960] E.A. 1058.

^{page 202 note 4} See Read in Milner, op. cit., 155.

^{page 203 note 1} See, e.g., Indian Code of Criminal Procedure, s.345. See also , Mitra, The Code of Criminal Procedure (India, 1898), Calcutta, 1967, 439–574.Google Scholar

^{page 203 note 2} See, e.g., Katende, supra, p. 187, n. 7.

^{page 203 note 3} See Read in Milner, op. cit., 154. See also the Report of the Advisory Council on the Penal System, Reparation by the Offender, London, 1970.

^{page 203 note 4} See Read in Milner, op. cit., 154.

^{page 203 note 5} See, e.g., Tanzania, Criminal Procedure Code, ss. 179–180. There is a provision for compensation in the Minimum Sentence Act, 1963, s.6(1), but it does not provide specifically for restitution.

^{page 203 note 6} See, e.g., Tanzania, Criminal Procedure Code, s. 173.

^{page 203 note 7} See Harban Singh v. R., [1958] E.A. 199.

^{page 203 note 8} In Tanzania forfeiture is provided for under a number of ordinances, see generally Cole, J. S. R. & Denison, W. N., Tanganyika, London, 1964.Google Scholar

^{page 204 note 1} See Read in Milner, op. cit., 122.

^{page 204 note 2} See Walker, op. cit., 143.

^{page 204 note 3} Walker, op. cit., 239ff. See also Tornudd, P., “The preventive effect of fines for drunkenness—a controlled experiment”, in Christie, N. (ed.), Scandinavian Studies in Criminology, vol. 2, London, 1968.Google Scholar

^{page 204 note 4} See Walker, op. cit., 153ff.

^{page 204 note 5} Walker, op. cit., 167. See R. v. Evans, [1958] 3 All E.R. 673.

^{page 205 note 1} Sethi v. R., [1962] E.A. 523. See also Read, op. cit., 57, and Cole & Denison, op. cit.

^{page 205 note 2} See Milner, supra, p. 187, n. 3.

^{page 205 note 3} See P. Ali, “Ideological commitment and the judiciary”, (1968) 36 Transition 47.

^{page 205 note 4} See R. v. Mureto Munyoki, (1944) K.L.R. 64. In Belgium the courts have been directed to vary fines according to the offender's income, reported in The Sunday Times (London), January 11th, 1970.

^{page 205 note 5} Capital punishment is used in East Africa mainly for murder, although in Uganda (since 1968) it is compulsory where there is a conviction for robbery under certain circumstances. See F. S. Ssekandi, “Uganda and Kondos: the capital punishment revisited”, (1970) 3 E.A.L.R. 83. And see K. F. Schuessler, “The deterrent influence of the death penalty”, in W. J. Chambliss, op. cit., 378.

^{page 206 note 1} See G. H. Boehringer, “Strokes: are they the way to end crime?”, The Standard, February 5th, 1970. See also E. L. Manyama, “Living down a brutal image”, The Standard, February 19th, 1970. And see Massawe, A. A. F., “Punishment: it's the convict who needs help”, Sunday News (Tanzania), May 2nd, 1971.Google Scholar

^{page 206 note 2} See Hawkins, K., Parole: A Select Bibliography with Especial Reference to the American Experience, Cambridge, 1969. And see the Annual Report of the Parole Board, London, H.M.S.O.Google Scholar

^{page 206 note 3} See, e.g., Tanzanian Prisons Act, cap. 58, s.49ff.

^{page 206 note 4} See, e.g., Kenya Prisons Act, cap. 90, s.49ff.

^{page 206 note 5} See, e.g., R. E. S. Tanner, “Cattle theft in Musoma, 1958–1959”, (1966), 65 Tanzanian Notes and Records 31; R. E. S. Tanner, op. cit., 159; Culwick, A. T., Ubena of the Rivers, London, 1935. See also R. A. Le Vine, “Traditional Gusii sanctions, personality and child rearing: a preliminary report”, conference paper, E.A.I.S.R., 1956.Google Scholar

^{page 207 note 1} See H. P. Junod, “African penal conceptions and the emancipation of African states”, (1962), 1 Geneva—Africa 156. See also G. M. Culwick, “Religious and economic sanctions in a Bantu tribe”. First International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, London, 1934.

^{page 207 note 2} See “Dead legalism in place of live justice, a plea for punishments suited to African conditions”, (No. 1333, April 20th, 1950) 26 East Africa and Rhodesia 1026. See also S.F. Moore, “Deterrents to incest”, (1960) American Anthropologist 881.

^{page 207 note 3} See Seidman, op. cit., 69, especially 60–65. Seidman asks the challenging question: “Do you believe it possible to develop a uniform philosophy of punishment for both Africans in the subsistence sector and its associated culture, and Africans in the commercial and industrialized sector?” See Read's discussion of the Uganda attempt to apply special procedures and rules of evidence in one section of the country (Karamoja) where a traditional practice, cattle theft, and related homicide, was causing a complete economic and political breakdown, (1966), 2 E.A.L.J. 50.

^{page 207 note 4} See A. Podgórecki, “Attitudes to the workers' courts”, in Aubert, op. cit., 142.

^{page 207 note 5} See Milner, op. cit., 190.

^{page 208 note 1} Op. cit., 176.

^{page 208 note 2} Milner, African Penal Systems, 261.

^{page 208 note 3} Tanner, (1955), 7 J.A.A. 159.

^{page 208 note 4} Milner, supra, p. 187, n. 3, 261.

^{page 208 note 5} With regard to the U.S.S.R., see Conrad, J., Crime and Correction, London, 1963, 164Google Scholar. On Cuba, see M. Frayn, supra. See also Yglesias, J., In the Fist of the Revolution, London, 1969Google Scholar. And see, regarding China, Myrdal, J., Report from a Chinese Village, London, 1967Google Scholar; D. & Crook, I., The First Years of the Yangi Commune, London, 1966.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{page 209 note 1} See F. M. Ssekandi, “Elitism in the judicial process: an appraisal of the system of assessors in East Africa”, Proceedings, U. of E. Africa Soc. Sci. Conf. (Law Papers), Kampala, 1968. See also Feifer, G., Justice in Moscow, London, 1964.Google Scholar

^{page 209 note 2} See the collection of articles on “Law and social change” in (1970, pt. 4) 13 American Behavioural Scientist.

^{page 209 note 3} A great opportunity was lost when no social scientists, including lawyers, were assigned to the Tanzania Resettlement Centres, in order to evaluate the principles in practice. For a discussion of Lenin's insistence on such an approach, and his suggestion that prizes ought to be made for the best conceived and executed laws, see Bratous, op. cit., pp. 38–46.

^{page 211 note 1} Figures obtained from annual reports of Tanzania Police, except those for 1967 which were given in a seminar address at the New Faculty, Dar es Salaam, by Mr. G. Sawaya, Commissioner for C.I.D., November 1968.

^{page 211 note 1} From Appendix to “Various aspects of the imprisonment system in Tanzania: problems and prospects”; and Annual Report, Prisons Department, 1964.

^{page 211 note 2} This figure includes 877 juveniles (under 15).