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⁹ See, for example, Galanter, op. cit., n. 1, at 123–24.

¹⁰ ibid., at 149; Allott, The Limits of Law, op. cit., n.4, at 207–236; Falk-Moore, op. cit., n. 7, at 723.

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¹⁴ At 46.

¹⁵ Op. cit., n. 3.

¹⁶ Theorists in this school ofjurisprudence include Pound, Durkheim and Parsons. See generally, Cotterrell, op. cit., at 71–98; Bottomley, S., Gunningham, N. and Parker, S., Law in Context, Annandale, 1991, at 310–13. This perspective was tentatively advocated for Africa in an early article by Seidman, op. cit., n. 1, at 1069.Google Scholar

¹⁷ See generally, Chambliss, W. (ed.), Sociological Readings in the Conflict Perspective, Addison-Wesley 1976;Google ScholarChambliss, W. and Seidman, R., Law, Order and Power, Addison-Wesley, 1982;Google ScholarQuinney, R., “The social reality of crime”, in Lloyd, L. and Freeman, M. (eds.), Lloyd's Introduction to Jurisprudence, London, 1985, 618–625. For a review of conflict theories, see Bottomly et al., op. cit., n. 16, at 313–17, Cotterrell, op. cit., n. 3, at 110–14.Google Scholar

¹⁸ See generally, Bottomley et al., op. cit, n. 16, at 308–309. For its application to law in Africa, see Brun-Otto, B., The Potitics and Sociology of African Legal Development, Hamburg, 1976, at 43–48; Merry, op. cit., n. 6, at 889–992;Google ScholarSeidman, R., “Contract law, the free market and state intervention: a jurisprudential perspective”, (1973) 7, 4Journal of Economic Issues 438–449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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²² For a selection of the vast literature on dependency theories and their application to sustainable development, see Roxborough, I., Theories of Underdevelopment, London, 1979;CrossRefGoogle ScholarReclift, M., Development and the Environmental Crisis: Red or Green Alternatives?, London, 1984;Google ScholarRedclift, M., Sustainable Development: Exploring the Contradictions, London, 1987;CrossRefGoogle ScholarAdams, W., Green Development, London, 1990;Google ScholarSen, G. and Grown, C., Development Crises and Alternative Visions, New York, 1987.Google Scholar

²³ Bottomley et al., op. cit., n. 16, at 316. The authors note, however, certain weaknesses in the conflict model. The concept ignores the potential for “capture” of interest groups by the state apparatus; it ignores the hegemonic role of law and other institutions which cause disadvantaged groups to regard law which is prejudicial to their interests as natural and inevitable, and it ignores the ability of powerful interest groups to prevent conflict arising in the first place. In each of these ways, the influence of power is to create at least a superficial degree of consensus. ibid.., at 322–23.

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²⁶ Ibid., See further O'Malley, P., “Accomplishing law: structure and negotiation in the legislative process”, (1980) 7 British Journal of Law and Society 22;CrossRefGoogle ScholarHarter, D., “Rethinking regulation: negotiation as an alternative to traditional rule-making”, (1981) 94 Harvard Law Review 1871–1891;Google ScholarHarter, D., “Negotiating regulations: a cure for malaise”, (1982) 71 Georgetown Law Journal 1–113.Google Scholar

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²⁸ Gluckman, M. (ed.), Ideas and Procedures in African Customary Law, London, 1969, at 9;Google ScholarAllott, A. N., “The changing law in a changing Africa”, (1961) 11, 2Sociologus 115–131;Google Scholar Allott, “The past and future contribution of law to development in Africa”, op. cit., n. 4, at 9; Fortmann, L. and Riddell, J., Trees and Tenure: An Annotated Bibliography for Agroforesters and Others, Nairobi/Wisconsin, 1985,Google Scholar at x. See also Hill, P., The Migrant Cocoa Fanners of Southern Ghana, Cambridge, 1963.Google Scholar

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³⁶ Von Benda-Beckman, F., “Scape-goat and magic charm: law in development theory and practice”, (1989) 28 Journal of Legal Pluralism 129–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Keesing, M., “Kastom and anticolonialism on Malaita: ‘culture’ as political symbol”, (1982) 13, 4Mankind 357–373.Google Scholar

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³⁹ Gluckman, op. cit., n. 28, at 22.

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⁴¹ Lloyd and Freeman, op. cit, n. 17, at 882.

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⁴⁴ Cotterrell, op. cit., n. 3, at 305–306.

⁴⁵ Bottomley et al., op. cit., n. 16, at 329–336.

⁴⁶ See for example, Galanter, op. cit., n. 6; Martin, op. cit., n. 6; Ghai, op. cit, n. 6.

⁴⁷ Seidman, op. cit, n. 1.

⁴⁸ Snyder, op. cit., n. 6; Martin, op. cit., n. 6; Brun-Otto, op. cit., n. 18.

⁴⁹ This view is different from, yet consistent with, writers of the customary model school who describe the interaction between state, customary and other norms in society; see Benda-Beckman, op. cit., n. 27 and n. 36. The particular focus in this article is on the interaction of die three theoretical models discussed in this section.

⁵⁰ Benda-Beckman, op. cit., n. 27; Gluckman, op. cit, n. 28, at 9.

⁵¹ The concept was wholeheartedly embraced, for example, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). See Principles 4, 8 & 12 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, UNCED, 1992, U N Doc A/Conf. 151/5 Rev. 1, 1992.

⁵² Adu, S., Soils of the Navrongo—Bawku Region, Kumasi, 1969,Google Scholar at 6. Permanent cultivation and annual burning have been implicated in the conversion of this part of the Guinea savanna zone to a Sudan savanna zone type. See C. Taylor, The Vegetation Zones of the Gold Coast, Accra, 1952, at Ramsey, J. and Innes, J., “Some quantitative observations on the effects of fire on the Guinea savanna vegetation of Northern Ghana over a period of eleven years”, (1963) 8, 1African Soils 41–86, at 60.Google Scholar

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⁵⁸ Fortes doubted the applicability of the word “tribe” to describe the Fra Fras. “Tribe” usually connotes a community with a cohesive language and culture but in the Upper East one dialect merges with another and there are no precise territorial boundaries. Fortes, M., “The political system of the Tallensi”, in Fortes and Evans-Pritchard, African Political Systems, London, 1940, 239–271, 239.Google Scholar

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⁶¹ Adu, op. cit., n. 52, at 4.

⁶² In colonial times, desertification was attribute d to the southwar d drift of the Sahara; however, deforestation is currently regarded as a more immediate cause of land degradation. Stebbing, , “The encroaching Sahara: the threat to the West African colonies”, (1935) 85 The Geographical Journal 507–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁶⁵ In May 1991, th e Government sent 1.2 billion cedis of food to the region to help alleviate food shortages. See, “Famin e relief, West Africa, 3844, 6–12 May, 1991, at 722.

⁶⁶ Report on the Distribution of Relief Foods During the Hungry Season (May/June/July) in Bawku District 1973, unpublished document. See also,Hunter, , “Seasonal hunger in a part of the West African savanna: a survey of bodyweights in Nangodi, North-East Ghana”, (1967) 41 Transactions ofthe British Institute of Geographers 167–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁶⁸ The dam covers a maximum surface area of 405 hectares and the irrigated land amounts to 850 hectares.

⁶⁹ ICOUR, , ICOUR: To Promote the Production of Food Crops, Accra, 1988, at 8.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ State Property and Contracts Act, 1960, s. 26.

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⁷³ Speech made by Mr Perrin of ICOUR Agroforestry to Bongo District Assembly, Minutes ofthe Bongo District Assembly First Ordinary Session, 4 May, 1989.

⁷⁴ The author is grateful to the ICOUR project manager and ICOUR Agroforestry nursery manager for the provision of information relating to this project and the Vea Dam.

⁷⁵ Minutes of the Bongo District Assembly, op. cit., n. 73.

⁷⁶ A number of small-scale dams have been built in this district most recently under the auspices of the Upper Region Agricultural Development Programme (URADEP).

⁷⁷ Minutes of the Bongo District Assembly Second Ordinary Session, 24—25 July, 1989.

⁷⁸ Minutes of the Bongo District Assembly Fourth Ordinary Session, 28–29 December, 1989.

⁷⁹ A number of local farmers have been employed as tree guards under the project. It is their duty to guard the trees from attack by grazing animals.

⁸⁰ Local Government Law, PNDCL 207/1988, s.6(6).

⁸¹ Kasanga, op. cit., n. 71, at 23.

⁸² State Property and Contracts Act, 1960, s. 26.

⁸³ Art. 188 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana, 1979.

⁸⁴ Act 125/1962, s. 4.

⁸⁵ Cf. Kasanga, op. cit., n. 71, at 25.

⁸⁶ In 1990, tree guards were paid 8,600 cedis per mont h by ICOU R (not UNDP). It is a condition of their employmen t that they will adequately protect the trees placed under their guard.

⁸⁷ Bye-Laws of the Bongo District Assembly 1990, Chapte r two, s. 14.

⁸⁸ ibid., s. 15.

⁸⁹ ibid.., ss. 17, 18.

⁹⁰ Benda-Beckman, op. cit., n. 36, at 134.

⁹¹ ibid., at 131–32.

⁹² PNDCL 207/1988, s. 6(6).

⁹³ WCED, op. cit., n. 11, at 33.

⁹⁴ Allott, op. cit., n. 3, at 198–202.

⁹⁵ Falk-Moore, op. cit., n. 7, at 745.

⁹⁶ Useful analogies ca n be drawn with bureaucracies in the developed world. Poulantzas, discussed in Cotterrell, notes that the expansion of the modern state has been characterized by increasing conflict and dissent within the state structure. See Cotterrell, op. cit., n. 3, at 296.

⁹⁷ Myrdal, op. cit., n. 5.

⁹⁸ Benda-Beckman, op. cit., n.27, at 10.

⁹⁹ Falk-Moore, op. cit., n. 7, at 745.

¹⁰⁰ Benda-Beckman, op. cit., n. 27, at 6.

¹⁰¹ Agroforestry can be broadly defined as any farming system in which trees and arable crops are inter-planted. As well as providing a diverse range of harvestable products, the planting of trees on farms can improve soil fertility and thus increase the production of arable crops.

¹⁰² These are the project leader's own estimates..The author gratefully acknowledges the help of Franz Zemp and Thomas in obtaining information about Bongo Agroforestry.

¹⁰³ FAO, op. cit., n. 67, at 56–57; Cernea, M., Land Tenure Systems and Social Implications of Forestry Development Programs, World Bank Staff Working Papers, no. 452, 1981, at 35;Google ScholarNoronha, R. and Lethem, F., Traditional Land Tenures and Land Use Systems in the Design of Agricultural Projects, Word Bank Staff Working Papers, no. 561, 1983, at 54;Google ScholarFortmann, L. and Riddell, J., Trees and Tenure: An Annotated Bibliography for Agmforesters and Others, Nairobi/Wisconsin, 1985, at 135.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ For a full discussion of widely applicable principles of customary land law in Ghana, see Ollennu, N. and Woodman, G., Ollennu's Principles of Customary Land Law in Ghana, second edition, Birmingham, 1985, at 184.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ ibid., at 8.

¹⁰⁶ ibid., at 62–68.

¹⁰⁷ ibid., at 87.

¹⁰⁸ Pogucki, R., A Survey of Land Tenure in Customary Law of the Protectorate of the Northern Territories, Accra, 1955, at 39;Google ScholarCheshire, P., Observations on the Land Tenure System in the Northern and Upper Regions, Kumasi, 1975, at C3; Ollennu and Woodman, op. cit., n. 104, at 66.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁹ The Regent of Bongo described a situation when this notional title might become important: in a dispute over the right to gather tree produce, the Regent could confiscate that right for himself if the disputants fail to reach a settlement. Evidence of the Regent of Bongo, given in interview, 8 July, 1990.

¹¹⁰ Evidence of the Chief of Gowrie, given in interview, 4 April, 1990.

¹¹¹ Land Appeal Suit no. 1/1980, Bolgatanga High Court.

¹¹² In the case of permanent tenants, there may be a separate agreement allowing for the sharing of tree produce or harvesting solely by the tenants.

¹¹³ Benda-Beckman, op. cit., n. 36, at 144.

¹¹⁴ ibid..

¹¹⁵ See, for example, FAO, op. cit, n. 67, at 56–57.

¹¹⁶ ibid., at 141.

¹¹⁷ This was a characteristic of the law and development school. See Snyder, op. cit., n. 6, at 732.

¹¹⁸ Lowe, R., Agricultural Revolution in Africa?, London, 1986, at 155;Google ScholarOmutunde, E., “Economic analysis: the legal framework and land tenure systems”, (1972) 15 Journal of Law and Economics 259–276, at 262.Google Scholar

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¹²⁰ Benda-Beckman, op. cit., n. 36, at 142.