Hostname: page-component-84b7d79bbc-g78kv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-26T11:30:07.488Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Transcendental Democracy: Ralph Waldo Emerson's Political Thought, the Legacy of Federalism, and the Ironies of America's Democratic Tradition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 October 2013

Abstract

This paper seeks to accomplish three things. First, it contextualizes Ralph Waldo Emerson's political thought by demonstrating that, despite his rhetoric to the contrary and the dominant interpretation within Emersonian scholarship, his political ideas had an intellectual genealogy rooted both in his local New England context and in the broader American culture. Second, it argues that principles and tensions from the Federalist Party lingered long after the demise of the organized group, especially in response to the perceived excesses and extremes of Jacksonian America, and can even be found within a thinker as egalitarian and democratic as Emerson. And finally, the article explores how the ironies of these two previous points flesh out the paradoxical and dynamic nature of America's democratic tradition. By engaging the ironies and paradoxes within Emerson's political thought in microcosm, I argue, one gets a better view of the larger issues at stake within the broader culture.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, The Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Spiller, Robert E. and Ferguson, Alfred R., 5 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971–94), Volume I, 203–4Google Scholar.

2 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, “The Editors to the Reader,” Dial, 1 July 1840, 23Google Scholar. Emerson elsewhere wrote that self-reliance works “a revolution in all the offices and relations of men.” Emerson, Collected Works, 2:44.

3 Mott, Wesley T., “‘The Age of the First Person Singular’: Emerson and Individualism,” in Myerson, Joel, ed., A Historical Guide to Ralph Waldo Emerson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 61100, 62Google Scholar.

4 Garvey, T. Gregory, “Introduction: The Emerson Dilemma,” in Garvey, , ed., The Emerson Dilemma: Essays on Emerson and Social Reform (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001), xixxiii, 3Google Scholar.

5 West, Cornel, The American Evasion of Philosophy: A Genealogy of Pragmatism (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 3638CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Gura, Philip F., American Transcendentalism: A History (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), xvGoogle Scholar.

6 Buell, Lawrence, Emerson (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 4Google Scholar.

7 Cavell, Stanley, The Claim of Reason: Wittgenstein, Skepticism, Morality, and Tragedy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 109Google Scholar. Cavell goes on to explain, however, how Emerson's thought was based in his “responsiveness” to other people and ideas, but that their influence was more provocative than dependent.

8 Capper, Charles, “‘A Little Beyond’: The Problem of the Transcendentalist Movement in American History,” Journal of American History, 85 (Sept. 1998), 502–39, 502, 535CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 See Dewey, John, “Emerson: The Philosopher of Democracy,” International Journal of Ethics, 13 (1903), 405–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 In portraying the American democratic tradition as a tradition filled with paradoxes and ironies, mostly devoid of a linear development and clear pathway, I am following the scholarship of Kloppenberg. Kloppenberg, James, The Virtues of Liberalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

11 Elkins, Stanley and McKiltrick, Eric, Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788–1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Wood, Gordon S., The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), 229304Google Scholar.

12 Quoted in Beard, Charles, The Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy (New York: Macmillan, 1915), 231Google Scholar.

13 Quoted in Peterson, Merril D., Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 593Google Scholar.

14 Foletta, Marshall, Coming to Terms with Democracy: Federalist Intellectuals and the Shaping of an American Culture (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2001), 3Google Scholar.

15 Ibid., 4.

16 Kaplan, Catherine O'Donnell, Men of Letters in the Early Republic: Cultivating Forms of Citizenship (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 14Google Scholar.

17 Ibid., 30–31.

18 See also Dowling, William C., Literary Federalism: Joseph Dennie and the Port Folio, 1801–1812 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2008)Google Scholar; Kermes, Stephanie, Creating an American Identity: New England, 1789–1825 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 Butler, Jon, Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 225–56Google Scholar.

20 Howe, Daniel Walker, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 411Google Scholar.

21 Tocqueville, Alexis de, Democracy in America, trans. Goldhammer, Arthur (New York: Library of America, 2004), 290, 299Google Scholar.

22 Kloppenberg, Virtues of Liberalism, 7.

23 Emerson, Collected Works, Volume I, 90.

24 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, Nature, in Emerson: Political Writings, ed. Sacks, Kenneth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 18, 1Google Scholar.

25 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, “Self Reliance,” in Political Writings, 5374, 56Google Scholar.

26 For Emerson's perspective on intellectual mentorship, see Buell, Emerson, 288–36.

27 For the Unitarians within the Federalist tradition, see Foletta, Coming to Terms with Democracy, 61–68.

28 See Kaplan, Men of Letters, 213.

29 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, The Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Gilman, William H. et al. , 16 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960–82), Volume IX, 413Google Scholar.

30 Cmiel, Kenneth, Democratic Eloquence: The Fight over Popular Speech in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: William Morrow, 1990), 113–14Google Scholar.

31 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, “American Scholar,” in Political Writings, 1128, 15Google Scholar.

32 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, “Politics,” in Political Writings, 115–26, 121Google Scholar.

33 Hofstadter, Richard and Wallace, Michael, eds., American Violence: A Documentary History (New York: Random House, 1971), 477Google Scholar.

34 Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 411.

35 See Loughran, Trish, The Republic in Print: Print Culture in the Age of U. S. Nation Building, 1770–1870 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 303440Google Scholar.

36 For the New England tradition of desiring the rest of the nation to mimic their regional tradition see Kermes, Creating an American Identity.

37 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, “Self Reliance,” in Politics, 5374, 59Google Scholar.

38 For the misuse and misinterpretation of Emerson during 1970s and 80s, see Dolan, Neal, Emerson's Liberalism (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 1016Google Scholar.

39 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, “Lecture on the Times,” in Emerson: Essays and Lectures, ed. Porte, Joel (New York: Library of America, 1983), 151–70, 160Google Scholar.

40 For arguments of Emerson and pragmatism see West, American Evasion of Philosophy, 11; Poirier, Richard, The Renewal of Literature: Emersonian Reflections (New York: Random House, 1987), 1017Google Scholar.

41 Emerson, “Self Reliance,” 62.

42 Lovejoy, Arthur O., The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1948)Google Scholar.

43 See Walzer, Michael, The Revolution of the Saints: A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965)Google Scholar.

44 Adams, John, Discourses on Davila, in The Works of John Adams …, ed. Adams, Charles Francis, 10 vols. (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1851–56), Volume VI, 285–86Google Scholar, emphasis in original.

45 Dolan, Emerson's Liberalism, 13.

46 Emerson, Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks, Volume II, 248.

47 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, “Experience,” in Essays and Lectures, 469–92, 490Google Scholar.

48 Emerson, “Self Reliance,” 264.

49 Hatch, Nathan O., The Democratization of American Christianity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), 125–60Google Scholar.

50 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, “Historic Notes of Life and Letters in New England,” in The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Emerson, Edward Waldo, 12 vols., (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1903–04), Volume X, 305–54, 326Google Scholar.

51 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, “Man the Reformer,” in Political Writings, 101–14, 103–4Google Scholar.

52 Fredrickson, George M., The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union, with a new introduction (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1965), 915Google Scholar. While Fredrickson astutely touches on Emerson's anxiety over democracy, he maintains the paradigm of Emerson breaking from his intellectual predecessors that is challenged in this article.

53 Ibid., 10307.

54 Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Politics,” 123.

55 Emerson, “Man the Reformer,” 110.

56 Emerson, Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks, Volume XV, 221.

57 Kermes, Creating an American Identity, 1.

58 Kaplan, Men of Letters in the Early Republic, 14.

59 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, Emerson's Antislavery Writings, ed. Gougeon, Len and Myerson, Joel (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 153Google Scholar.

60 Dunlap, William, “Remarks on the Love of Country,” New York Messenger (Nov. 1797), 581–83, 582Google Scholar, emphasis in original.

61 See Howe, Daniel Walker, Making the American Self: Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln, 2nd edn (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), esp. 189211Google Scholar.

62 Gura, American Transcendentalism, 306.

63 See Roberts, Timothy Mason, Distant Revolutions: 1848 and the Challenge to American Exceptionalism (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

64 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, “Napoleon; or, the Man of the World,” in Political Writings, 169–76, 170–71Google Scholar.

65 Ibid., 184.

66 Ibid., 185.

67 These tensions are recently and artfully explored in Burt, John, Lincoln's Tragic Pragmatism: Lincoln, Douglas, and Moral Conflict (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013)Google Scholar.

68 See Ratner-Rosenhagen, Jennifer, American Nietzsche: A History of an Icon and His Ideas (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2012), 115Google Scholar.

69 See Eyal, Yonatan, The Young American Movement and the Transformation of the Democratic Party, 1828–1861 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007)Google Scholar.

70 See Guarneri, Carl, The Utopian Alternative: Fourierism in Nineteenth Century America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), 9Google Scholar.

71 See Kaplan, Men of Letters in the Early Republic, 201–202.