Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-s2hrs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T10:29:54.310Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Passes and Protection in the Making of a British Mediterranean

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2015

Tristan Stein
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Between the end of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth, the security of British navigation in and around the corsair-infested waters of the Mediterranean depended on indented parchment passports—Mediterranean passes. This article recovers the history of the Mediterranean pass and traces the development of the Mediterranean pass system from its origins in England's mid-seventeenth-century treaties with the North African regencies to its role in the emergence of Britain's Mediterranean empire over the course of the long eighteenth century. At its inception, the Mediterranean pass system formed an interstate regulatory regime that mediated between North African and British naval power by providing a means to identify British vessels at sea and to limit the protection of Britain's treaties to them. During the eighteenth century, however, foreign merchants and shipowners, especially from Genoa, sought out the security of British passes by moving to Britain's colonies at Gibraltar and Minorca. The resulting incorporation of foreigners into the British pass system fundamentally altered the nature and significance of the pass and contributed to the development of Britain's imperial presence in the Mediterranean. This article reveals how the growth of British power and the interactions of British consuls and imperial officials with mariners and merchants from around the Mediterranean transformed the pass from a document of identification into an instrument of imperial protection that helped sustain Britain's Mediterranean outposts in the eighteenth century and make possible the dramatic expansion of the British Empire further into that sea at the start of the nineteenth.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of British Studies , Volume 54 , Issue 3 , July 2015 , pp. 602 - 631
Copyright
Copyright © The North American Conference on British Studies 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 “Political Journal and Register, Algiers, 1767–8,” 21 September 1768, British Library (hereafter BL) Add MS 74252; Fraser, 30 September 1769, The National Archives (hereafter TNA), FO 3/3, fol. 98r–v.

2 The pass that Traverso carried had been originally issued to the Rising Sun of Baltimore in 1767. A copy of the pass with notations of the erasures on it can be found in TNA, FO 3/3, fol. 137r–v.

3 Fisher, Godfrey, Barbary Legend: War, Trade and Piracy in North Africa, 1415–1830 (Oxford, 1957)Google Scholar; Anderson, M. S., “Great Britain and the Barbary States in the Eighteenth Century,” Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 29, no. 79 (May 1956): 87–107Google Scholar; David Richardson, Mediterranean Passes in the Public Record Office, London, British Records Relating to America in Microform Series (Wakefield, 2006); Tito Benady, “The Settee Cut: Mediterranean Passes Issued at Gibraltar,” The Mariner's Mirror 87, no. 3 (August 2001): 281–96; Harding, Nicholas, “North African Piracy, the Hanoverian Carry Trade, and the British State,” Historical Journal 43, no. 1 (March 2000): 25–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Weiss Muller, Hannah, “The Garrison Revisited: Gibraltar in the Eighteenth Century,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 41, no. 3 (September 2013): 353–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 The classic comprehensive study of Mediterranean corsairs in English is Earle's, PeterCorsairs of Malta and Barbary (London, 1970)Google Scholar. More recently, see Greene, Molly, Catholic Pirates and Greek Merchants: A Maritime History of the Mediterranean (Princeton, 2010)Google Scholar, and Kaiser, Wolfgang and Calafat, Guillaume, “Violence, Protection and Commerce: Corsairsing and ars piratica in the Early Modern Mediterranean,” in Persistent Piracy: Maritime Violence and State Formation in Global Historical Perspective, ed. Amirell, Stefan and Müller, Leos (Houndmills, 2014), 69–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 The negotiation of treaties with the North African regencies in the latter half of the seventeenth century also largely brought an end to the problem of North African captivity for the British. On the British experience of captivity, see Colley, Linda, Captives: Britain, Empire and the World, 1600–1850 (New York, 2004)Google Scholar; Catherine Styer, “Barbary Pirates, British Slaves, and the Early Modern Atlantic World, 1570–1800” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2011); Matar, Nabil, British Captives from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, 1563–1760 (Leiden, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 On such legal and regulatory regimes, see Benton, Lauren, Law and Colonial Culture: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900 (Cambridge, 2002)Google Scholar. See also the essays in Benton, Lauren and Ross, Richard J., eds., Legal Pluralism and Empires, 1500–1850 (New York, 2013)Google Scholar.

7 Although the alteration of a Mediterranean pass was a capital offense, the Admiralty's legal counsel advised there was no possibility of convicting Dodero for his crime, as he was not a British subject and had altered the pass in Genoa and thus was not bound by the relevant legislation. “Copy of Mr. Hussey's Opinion dated at the Temple, 29 November 1768,” BL Add MS 74252, 64.

8 “Political Journal and Register, Algiers, 1767–8,” 21 September 1768, BL Add MS 74252.

9 Greene, Molly, “Beyond the Northern Invasion: The Mediterranean in the Seventeenth Century,” Past and Present 174, no. 1 (February 2002): 43–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 44.

10 Histories of the British presence in the Mediterranean overwhelmingly focus on the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, as in Holland's, Robert, Blue-Water Empire: The British in the Mediterranean since 1800 (London, 2012)Google Scholar. The most important exception to this tendency is Colley, Captives. The principal studies of the British occupations of Gibraltar and Minorca remain Hills, George, Rock of Contention: A History of Gibraltar (London, 1974)Google Scholar, and Gregory, Desmond, Minorca, the Illusory Prize: A History of the British Occupations of Minorca between 1708 and 1802 (Rutherford, 1990)Google Scholar. For more recent studies, see Constantine, Stephen, Community and Identity: The Making of Modern Gibraltar since 1704 (New York, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brown, James A. O. C., Crossing the Strait: Morocco, Gibraltar and Great Britain in the 18th and 19th Centuries (Leiden, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Muller, “The Garrison Revisited.”

11 See Lauren Benton, Law and Colonial Culture; eadem, A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400–1900 (New York, 2010); Belmessous, Saliha, ed., Empire by Treaty: Negotiating European Expansion, 1600–1900 (New York, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 On the ways in which nineteenth-century European understanding of a Eurocentric international law elided more inclusive early modern conceptions of the law of nations, see Alexandrowicz, C. H., An Introduction to the History of the Law of Nations in the East Indies (16th, 17th and 18th Centuries) (Oxford, 1967)Google Scholar. More recently, see Pitts, Jennifer, “Empire and Legal Universalisms in the Eighteenth Century,” American Historical Review 117, no. 1 (February 2012): 92–121CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Playfair, R. L., The Scourge of Christendom: Annals of British Relations with Algiers prior to the French Conquest (London, 1884), 5–6Google Scholar; Lane Poole, Stanley, The Story of the Barbary Corsairs (New York, 1890)Google Scholar.

14 For example, see Robert Hunter, “Rethinking Europe's Conquest of North Africa and the Middle East: The Opening of the Maghreb, 1660–1814,” Journal of North African Studies 4, no. 4 (Winter 1999): 1–26; Matar, “The Northern Invasion,” chap. 3 in British Captives.

15 Tuck, Richard, “Alliances with Infidels in the European Imperial Expansion,” in Empire and Modern Political Thought, ed. Muthu, Sankar (Cambridge, 2012), 61–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 61. See also van Ittersum, Martine, Profit and Principle: Hugo Grotius, Natural Rights Theories and the Rise of Dutch Power in the East India, 1695–1615 (Leiden, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stern, Philip J., The Company-State: Corporate Sovereignty and the Early Modern Foundations of the British Empire in India (New York, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 13.

16 On the early modern use of passports see Groebner, Valentin, “Describing the Person, Reading the Signs in Late Medieval and Renaissance Europe: Identity Papers, Vested Figures, and the Limits of Identification, 1400–1600,” in Documenting Individual Identity: The Development of State Practices in the Modern World, ed. Caplan, Jane and Torpey, John (Princeton, 2001), 15–27Google Scholar; and Moatti, Claudia and Kaiser, Wolfgang, eds., Gens de passage en Méditerranée de l'Antiquité à l’époque moderne: Procédures de contrôle et d'identification (Paris, 2007)Google Scholar.

17 Thomaz, Luis Filipe F. R., “Precedents and Parallels of the Portuguese Cartaz System,” in The Portuguese, Indian Ocean, and European Bridgeheads, 1500–1800: Festschrift in Honour of Professor K. S. Mathew, ed. Malekandathil, Pius and Mohammed, Jamal (Tellicherry, India, 2001), 67–85Google Scholar; Prange, Sebastian R., “A Trade of No Dishonor: Piracy, Commerce, and Community in the Western Indian Ocean, Twelfth to Sixteenth Century,” American Historical Review 116, no. 5 (December 2011): 1269–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 1276.

18 Benton, A Search for Sovereignty, 141–42; Stern, The Company-State, 43–44.

19 de Groot, Alexander H., “Ottoman North Africa and the Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,” Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée no. 39 (June 1985): 131–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 134; van Krieken, Gerard, Corsaires et marchands: Les relations entre Alger et les Pays-Bas, 1604–1830 (Saint-Denis, France, 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 22, 59–60.

20 Braudel, Fernand, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, trans. Reynolds, Siân (New York, 1972)Google Scholar, 1:615–42. For the problems of understanding the seventeenth-century Mediterranean in terms of national groups, see Molly Greene, “Beyond the Northern Invasion.” On accommodation as a strategy within England's early modern commercial expansion, see Games, Alison, Web of Empire: English Cosmopolitans in an Age of Expansion, 1560–1660 (New York, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the failure of England's desultory naval campaigns against North Africa in the first half of the century, see Rodger, N. A. M., The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain, 660–1649 (London, 1997), 349–53Google Scholar.

21 Edward Nichols to Winchilsea, Whitehall, 10 May 1661, TNA, SP 44/1, 1.

22 “A Narrative of the treaty with Algier by commands & instructions from his Majesties beganne the 23th day of November 1660,” Letterbook of the Earl of Winchilsea, Finch MS DG 7, 22, Record Office for Leicestershire, Leicester and Rutland.

23 Clive Parry, ed., The Consolidated Treaty Series, vol. 7, 1661–1663 (Dobbs Ferry, 1969), 244–46, 253–56, and 273–75. These passes verified that the ship carrying it was legitimately English and, based upon rules drawn up in 1676, were to be issued only to ships that were built in England (or if foreign built, made free in England), owned by English subjects, and manned by crews that were at least two-thirds English. On the regulations for the issuance of these passes, see J. R. Tanner, ed., A Descriptive Catalogue of the Naval Manuscripts in the Pepysian Library at Magdalene College, Cambridge, vol. 3, Admiralty Letters (Naval Records Society, 1923), xviii–xxiv.

24 Weber, André-Paul, Régence d'Alger et Royaume de France (1500–1800): Trois siècles de luttes et d'intérêts partagés (Paris, 2014)Google Scholar, 147.

25 Kulsrud, Carl J., Maritime Neutrality to 1780 (Boston, 1936), 126–36Google Scholar, 162–64, 192.

26 Chitty, Joseph, A Treatise on the Laws of Commerce and Manufactures, and the Contracts relating thereto (London, 1824)Google Scholar, 1:495.

27 Court of Assistants of Trinity House, London, 21 and 28 June 1662, CLC/526/MS30004/001, 42–43, London Metropolitan Archives.

28 In response to long-standing problems of identification caused by the different passports issued by the governments of its constituent provinces, the Dutch Republic instituted a uniform “passeport turc” in 1686. It then adopted the model of the British scalloped pass in 1712. Other European states subsequently followed the Dutch example. See de Groot, “Ottoman North Africa,” 144; van Krieken, Corsaires et marchands, 77–78, 88–89; Müller, Leos, Consuls, Corsairs, and Commerce: The Swedish Consular Service and Long-Distance Shipping, 1720–1815 (Uppsala, 2004)Google Scholar, 59, 144–46; Erik Gøbel, “The Danish ‘Algerian Sea Passes’, 1747–1838: An Example of Extraterritorial Production of ‘Human Security,’” in “The Production of Human Security in Premodern and Contemporary History,” ed. Zwierlein, Cornel, Graf, Rüdiger, and Ressel, Magnus, special issue, Historical Social Research 35, no. 4 (2010): 164–89Google Scholar.

29 Greene, “Beyond the Northern Invasion,” 63–70.

30 William Love, Speech to the House of Commons, 7 March 1677, in Anchitell Grey, ed., Debates of the House of Commons, From the Year 1667 to the Year 1694, vol. 4, 1675–1677 (London, 1763), 208.

31 “Letter to the Farmers of the Customs about Passes to be taken by Shipps trading to the Levant Seas,” 23 November 1663, TNA, PC 2/56, 681; Paul Rycaut to the Earl of Winchilsea, Algiers, 13 September 1663, calendared in Report on the Manuscripts of Allan George Finch, Esq. of Burley-on-the-Hill, Rutland, ed. S. C. Lomas (London, 1913), 1:277.

32 In 1674, for example, the government of Tripoli announced its intention to begin making prize of foreign cargo found on English vessels, leading to a war that would last from 1675 to 1676. See Government of Tripoli to Charles II, 19 October 1674, TNA, SP 71/22, fol. 83r.

33 Algiers and Morocco proved more resistant to European pressure than Tunis or Tripoli. Notably, the French bombardment of Algiers in 1687 failed to bring the regency to terms. See Weiss, Captives and Corsairs, 81–82.

34 Francis Baker to Leoline Jenkins, Tunis, 20 March 1683, TNA, SP 71/26, fol. 274r. On the English naval campaign against Algiers, see Hornstein, Sari, The Restoration Navy and English Foreign Trade, 1674–1688 (Aldershot, 1991)Google Scholar.

35 “Captain Shovell's account of several passages at the treating of a peace with the Algereens,” fol. 190v, BL Add MS 28093.

36 This provision included a reciprocal dimension, as the article establishing the English pass also called on consuls to provide corsairs with certificates to secure them from attack by English warships. A copy of the final treaty, dated 15 July 1683, may be found at TNA, SP 108/12.

37 Herbert, Algiers Road, April 12, 1682, TNA, SP 71/2, fol. 311r; Herbert, Bay of Tunis, 20 October 1682, TNA, SP 71/2, fol. 317r–v. On opposition to passes, see the Parliamentary debate of 7 March 1677, in Grey, Debates of the House of Commons, vol. 4, 1675–1677, 207–16.

38 Seventeenth-century pass registers survive only from 1662–68 and 1683–88, TNA, ADM 7/630 and ADM 7/75–76. For the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, registers are available from 1730 to 1843, TNA, ADM 7/77–132. The quality and organization of the registers deteriorates sharply after 1820, when responsibility for their issuance was transferred from the Admiralty to the Customs.

39 Richardson gives this figure in Mediterranean Passes, 10. For the period from 1771 to 1773, Richardson calculates that most vessels sailing from British ports to the Mediterranean, Africa, and the East Indies carried passes, as did between 25 and 40 percent of those sailing to Southern Europe, North America, and the West Indies.

40 Davis, Ralph, The Rise of the English Shipping Industry in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (London, 1962)Google Scholar, 29, 43.

41 Thomas Baker, Algiers, 5 September 1691, TNA, SP 71/3, 429–30; J. S. Bromley, Corsairs and Navies (London, 1987), 38.

42 Lydon, James G., “Fish for Gold: The Massachusetts Fish Trade with Iberia, 1700–1773,” New England Quarterly 54, no. 4 (December 1981): 539–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

43 For the registers for passes granted outside of Britain, see TNA, ADM 7/134–51. These registers survive from 1730, but are poorly organized and show gaps when colonial governors failed to make returns for the passes they distributed, rendering it difficult to measure the changing distribution of passes. These registers record the return of nearly two hundred passes issued in 1735 outside of Britain: seventy-three in New England; twenty in the mid-Atlantic colonies; ten in Guernsey and the Channel Islands; twenty-one in Newfoundland; forty at Minorca; thirteen at Gibraltar; and a handful of others in the other American colonies. These figures would remain relatively consistent through the mid-eighteenth century, with growing numbers of passes granted at Gibraltar and the mid-Atlantic colonies.

44 On the relationship between the differentiation and interconnection of maritime regions, see Benton, Lauren, “The Atlantic in Global Perspective,” in The British Atlantic World, 1500–1800, ed. Armitage, David and Braddick, Michael J., 2nd ed. (Houndmills, 2009), 271–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45 Eldem, Edhem, “Capitulations and Western Trade,” in The Cambridge History of Turkey: The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839, ed. Faroqhi, Suraiya N. (Cambridge, 2008), 311–12Google Scholar.

46 Pierre Filippini, Jean, Il porto di Livorno e la Toscana (1676–1814), 3 vols. (Naples, ca. 1998)Google Scholar, 1:44–45; “Memorial of the British Factory at Lisbon, relative to the State of the British Trade there,” Lisbon, 24 July 1765, TNA, CO 388/95, 16. See also Ressel, Magnus, “British Dominance of Merchant Shipping between Northern and Southern Europe, 1720–1750,” International Journal of Maritime History 25, no. 2 (December 2013): 117–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47 Anderson, “Great Britain and the Barbary States”; Harding, “North African Piracy,” 30.

48 Sirota, Brent, “The Church: Anglicanism and the Nationalization of Maritime Space,” in Mercantilism Reimagined: Political Economy in Early Modern Britain and Its Empire, ed. Stern, Philip J. and Wennerlind, Carl (New York, 2014), 196–217Google Scholar, at 197.

49 Denis-Delacour, Christopher, “Flying the Pope's Flag: The Commercial Exploitation of the Roman Flag in Mediterranean Mercantile Policies (18th Century),” Quaderni storici, no. 143 (August 2013): 395–417Google Scholar. For Atlantic and Caribbean parallels, see Jarvis, Michael J., In the Eye of All Trade: Bermuda, Bermudians, and the Maritime Atlantic World, 1680–1783 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

50 Benton, A Search for Sovereignty, 142.

51 Order in Council, Kensington, 4 June 1722, TNA, ADM 1/5155.

52 Passes were obtainable from the Admiralty Office in London, customs houses in the outports, and colonial governors overseas.

53 Greene, “Beyond the Northern Invasion”; eadem, Catholic Pirates and Greek Merchants.

54 Devoulx, Albert, Le registre des prises maritimes: Traduction d'un document authentique et inédit concernant le partage des capture amenées par les corsaires algériens (Algiers, 1872)Google Scholar.

55 Extract of a Letter from Consul Ware to the Earl of Shelburn, Malaga, 22 October 1766, TNA, ADM 1/3837, 9.

56 John Parker to Josiah Burchett, Coruna, 24 March 1725, TNA, ADM 1/3826, 61.

57 Admiral Richard Spry reported that a pass obtainable with a £50 bond sold for up to £200; “Remarks on the present Abuse of British Mediterranean Passes,” 26 September 1769, TNA, SP 42/103, doc. 38B.

58 Benady, “The Settee Cut,” 282–86; Muller, “The Garrison Revisited,” 10–11.

59 For disputes with Algiers over “strangers” sailing with English passes out of Tangiers, see Henry Norwood to Arlington, Tangier, 9 May 1668, TNA, CO 270/10, fol. 175r–v.

60 On the Genoese community at Gibraltar, see Benady, Tito, “Genoese in Gibraltar,” Gibtel: Gibraltar Heritage Journal no. 8 (2001): 85–102Google Scholar.

61 Lo Basso, Luca, “Il Sud dei Genovesi: Traffici marittimi e pratiche mercantili tra l'Italia meridionale, Genova e Marsiglia nel Settecento,” in Lo spazio tirrenico nella ‘grande trasformazione’: Merci, uomini e istituzioni nel Settecento e nel primo Ottocento, ed. Salvemini, Biagio (Bari, 2009), 239–62Google Scholar; Stella Rollandi, Maria, “Mimetismo di bandiera nel Mediterraneo del secondo Settecento: Il caso del Giorgio inglese,” Società e storia 33, no. 130 (2010): 721–42Google Scholar; Carrino, Anastella, “Ressources ‘nationales’ et ressources locales: Les ‘Génois’ sur les routes tyrrhéniennes entre le XVIIIe siècle et début du XIX siècle,” La Revue Historique no. 7 (2010): 99–125Google Scholar; Carrino, Anastella, “Fra nazioni e piccole patrie: ‘Padroni’ e mercanti liguri sulle rotte tirreniche del secondo Settecento,” Società e storia 34, no. 131 (2011): 36–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

62 Giacchero, Giulio, Economia e società del settecento genovese (Genoa, 1973), 146–58Google Scholar.

63 Esposizione del Magistrato dei Conservatori de Mare, 17 May 1758, Maritimarum 1721, Archivio di Stato di Genova (hereafter ASG).

64 For some of the many references to British subjects serving as captains of the colors, see George Tatem to John Cleveland, Messina, 23 March 1756, TNA, ADM 1/3833, fol. 656r–v; Stanhope Aspinwall to Thomas Robinson, Algiers, 6 August 1755, TNA, SP 71/9, 658; Marsh to John Raleigh, Malaga, 18 June 1770, 26 April 1770, 26 June 1770, Letters from Consuls, Malaga, 1757–1772, 61–62, 53–55, 63–65, Gibraltar Government Archives (hereafter GGA).

65 Jackson to Burchett, Genoa, 19 February 1739, TNA, ADM 1/5115/8.

66 The consuls in North Africa were a partial exception to this rule, since they were salaried and represented the British state and British diplomatic interests in their interactions and negotiations with the North African governments. On eighteenth-century British consuls, see Horn, D. B., The British Diplomatic Service, 1689–1789 (Oxford, 1961), 237–52Google Scholar. On the early modern consul institution, see also the essays in Ulbert, Jörg and le Bouëdec, Gérard, ed., La fonction consulaire à l’époque moderne: L'affirmation d'une institution économique et politique (1500–1700) (Rennes, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

67 Filippini, Jean-Pierre, “Le problème de l'application des ordonnances de marine dans une echelle italienne, Livourne,” in Pouvoirs, contestations et comportements dans l'Europe moderne, ed. Barbiche, Bernard, Poussou, Jean-Pierre, and Tallon, Alain (Paris, 2005), 475–96Google Scholar.

68 In 1775 and again in 1777, the Genoese Senate instructed the Magistrato dei Conservatori de Mare to give the British consul at Genoa full cooperation in reclaiming passes, see Promemoria del Console Inglese, 9 March 1775, Maritimarum 1720, ASG and Memoria del Console d'Inghilterra, 17 March 1777, Maritimarum 1730, ASG. For further examples, see Thomas Burnet to Burchett, Lisbon, 19 October 1721 and 15 July 1721, TNA, ADM 1/3825, 169, 183; Brinley Skinner, Livorno, 20 April 1725, TNA, ADM 1/3826, 110; Charles Compton to Burchett, Lisbon, 16 August 1737, TNA, ADM 1/5114/4; Jackson to Burchett, Genoa, 16 April 1739, TNA, ADM 1/5115/8.

69 James Shaftoe to Cleveland, Cagliari, 3 July 1753 and Shaftoe to the Lords Commissioners, Cagliari, 5 January 1754, TNA, ADM 1/3833, 143, 239; Nathaniel Ware to John Irwin, Malaga, 6 October 1766, TNA, ADM 1/3837, 12–13.

70 James Banks to Cleveland, Cartagena, 13 November 1754, TNA, ADM 1/3833, fol. 355v.

71 Dick to Philip Stephens, Livorno, 22 November 1765, TNA, ADM 1/3836, 25; Pass for the Success of Dublin, TNA, ADM 1/3836, 28.

72 Fisher, H. E. S., “Lisbon, Its English Merchant Community and the Mediterranean in the Eighteenth Century,” in Shipping, Trade and Commerce: Essays in Memory of Ralph Davis, ed. Cottrell, P. L. and Aldcroft, D. H. (Leicester, 1981), 23–44Google Scholar, at 32.

73 Samuel Thompson to Dartmouth, Algiers, 20 March 1713, TNA, SP 71/5, 13–14; James Bruce, Algiers, 28 September 1764, TNA, FO 3/1, fol. 244v.

74 Black to Newcastle, Algiers, 8 April 1731, TNA SP 71/7, 123–25.

75 For recent reinterpretations of the problem of “fraud” in the early modern period, see the essays in Biagio Salvemini and Roberto Zaugg, eds., “Frodi marittime tra norme e istituzioni (secc. XVII–XIX),” special issue, Quaderni storici, no. 143 (August 2013).

76 Constantine, Community and Identity, 14–17, 22–23; Harlaftis, Gelina, “Mapping the Greek Maritime Diaspora from the Early Eighteenth to the Late Twentieth Centuries,” in Diaspora Entrepreneurial Networks: Four Centuries of History, ed. Baghdiantz McCabe, Ina, Harlafits, Gelina, and Pepelasis Minoglu, Ioanna (Oxford, 2005), 147–72Google Scholar, at 152–53.

77 These figures come from comparing pass registers for October 1731 to December 1739, TNA, ADM 7/78, 80, 82–83 against those for January 1764 to October 1769, TNA, ADM 7/91–92, 94.

78 Müller, Consuls, Corsairs, and Commerce, 55–60, 147–51; Gøbel, “The Danish Algerian Sea Passes,” 175–82.

79 Spry, “Remarks”; Giacchero, Economia e società, 156.

80 Captain Charles Hudson to Commodore Thomas Harrison, Deal Castle at Genoa, 7 September 1765, TNA, ADM 1/385.

81 “Account, by the British Factory residing at Leghorn, of the Trade between Great Britain and its Dominions, and that City,” Livorno, 11 July 1765, TNA, CO 389/95.

82 On eighteenth-century imperial subjecthood, see Muller, “The Garrison Revisited”; eadem, “Bonds of Belonging: Subjecthood and the British Empire,” Journal of British Studies 53, no. 1 (January 2014): 29–58. On Admiralty court practice, see Benton, Lauren, “Abolition and Imperial Law, 1790–1820,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 39, no. 3 (September 2011): 355–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar, esp. 357–60. On the priority of place of residence over place of birth in Admiralty prize court opinions, see also “Queries for the Opinion of Dr. Lee,” 19 November 1747, George Lee Papers 361, Box 1, Folder 10, 68, Historical Society of Pennsylvania (hereafter HSP).

83 Burchett to Sabine, 16 October 1730, TNA, ADM 2/1319, 90; Stephens to Braithwaite, 20 September 1766, TNA, ADM 2/1322, 267–68.

84 On this point, see Muller, “The Garrison Revisited,” 10–15.

85 Udny to Halifax, Venice, 7 September 1764, TNA, SP 99/69, fol. 319r; copy of Letter from William Pettigrew to Colonel Edward Braddock, Tetuan, 12 November 1753, TNA, CO 91/11, fol. 322v.

86 For examples, see “extract of a Letter from Consul Ware to the Earl of Shelburn,” Malaga, 22 October 1766, TNA, ADM 1/3837, 9; Marsh to Stephens, Malaga, 2 May 1769, TNA, ADM 1/3837, 74; Hardy to Stephens, Cadiz, 15 August 1769, TNA, ADM 1/3837, 81–82.

87 “Copy of Alcayd Mohamet Lucas, Governor of Tetuan, His Protest,” Tetuan, 17 February 1754, TNA, SP 71/19, 303.

88 Copy of a Letter from Col. Herbert to the Alcayde of Tetuan, Gibraltar, 2 September 1752, TNA, CO 91/11, fol. 290r.

89 Braithwaite to Stephens, Gibraltar, 3 October 1766, TNA, ADM 1/3836, 97–98.

90 Gibraltar's pass registers confirm Braithwaite's account of the fluid nature of the colony's maritime community. Between August 1767 and June 1777, 437 passes were issued at Gibraltar to 148 different individuals. Of these, only twenty-two held passes for all or nearly all of this period while thirty held passes for only a single year, and a further twenty held passes for two years.

91 Boyd to Dick, Gibraltar, 8 November 1774, Letters to Consuls & Ambassadors, Genoa, Barcelona, Alicante & France, 1770–1797, 7, GGA.

92 Boyd to Stephens, Gibraltar, 14 August 1769 and Raleigh to Stephens, Gibraltar, 12 November 1773, Admiralty Book 1, 2–5, 41, GGA; Augustus Elliot to Collet, Gibraltar, 1 September and 23 October 1777, Letters to Consuls & Ambassadors, Genoa, Barcelona, Alicante & France, 1770–97, 30–31, GGA.

93 “Copy of a Letter from Mr. Fraser to Mr. Wright, Secretary of the Island of Minorca, Dated Algiers, 25 July 1771,” TNA, FO 3/4, fol. 124r–v. Like that of Gibraltar, Minorca's population grew dramatically in the eighteenth century, increasing from fifteen thousand in 1720 to twenty-five thousand in 1763. See Murillo Tuduri, Andreu, “El puerto de Mahón y las evoluciones menorquinas, 1740–1911,” Revista de Menorca 61 (1970), 118–25Google Scholar; Casanovas, Miquel-Angel, Història econòmica de Menorca: La transformació d'una economia insular (1300–2000) (Mallorca, 2006), 130–39Google Scholar.

94 Fraser to Rochford, Algiers, 1 May 1772, 6 August 1772, 7 October 1772, TNA, FO 3/4, fols. 93r–94r, 122r, 144r; Jonathan Barlow to Rochford, Minorca, 5 September 1772, TNA, CO 174/7, 214r–215v; Theodore Alexiano, Mahon, 21 July 1772, TNA, CO 174/7, fols. 217r–221r.

95 Subramanian, Lakshmi, Indigenous Capital and Imperial Expansion: Bombay, Surat and the West Coast (Delhi, 1996)Google Scholar.

96 On the Indian Ocean shipping pass as an instrument of maritime jurisdiction, see Elliott, Derek L., “The Politics of Capture in the Eastern Arabian Sea, c. 1700–1750,” International Journal of Maritime History 25, no. 2 (December 2013): 187–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

97 The Algerians continued this practice through the first quarter of the eighteenth century, when the more effective distribution of passes and the decline of Algerian corsairing largely, but not entirely, brought it to an end. See Robert Cole, Algier, 8 October 1708, BL Add MS 61535, fol. 109r–v; Samuel Thompson, 23 August 1714, TNA, SP 71/5, 290–92; Hudson to Newcastle, Algier, 2 January and 15 May 1725, TNA, SP 71/6, 300, 340.

98 Heywood, Colin, “Ideology and the Profit Motive in the Algerine Corso: The Strange Case of the Isabella of Kirkcaldy, 1709–1714,” in Anglo-Saxons in the Mediterranean: Commerce, Politics and Ideas (XVII–XX Centuries), ed. Vassallo, Carmel and D'Angelo, Michael (Msida, Malta, 2007), 17–42Google Scholar.

99 Black to Newcastle, Algiers, 8 April 1731, TNA, SP 71/7, 123–25; Copy of Consul Pettigrew's letter to the Alcayd and Inhabitants of Tangier, Pettigrew to Lord George Beauclerck, Tetuan, 21 September 1751, Pettigrew to Holderness, Tetuan, 10 November 1751, TNA, SP 71/19, 117–19, 121–23, 135–36.

100 Hudson to Paul Methuen, Algiers, 12 April 1721, TNA, SP 71/6, 82; Hudson to Charles Delafaye, 10 November 1725, TNA, SP 71/6, 385–86.

101 Benton, A Search for Sovereignty, 149–58; eadem, “Abolition and Imperial Law,” 357–60.

102 Lawrence to Newcastle, Tunis, 17 April 1733 and 19 June 1733, TNA, SP 71/28, 329, 353–54.

103 Bruce, Algiers, 28 September 1764, TNA, FO 3/1, fols. 243v–244v.

104 George Lee, 5 August 1747, George Lee Papers 361, Box 1, Folder 14, 102, HSP.

105 On passavants and the regulatory problems that accompanied the Seven Years’ War in the Mediterranean, see Bruce, Algiers, 20 July 1764, TNA, FO 3/1, fols. 210r–211v.

106 On anxiety that discovery of fraudulent passes would lead North Africans to detain British vessels and British subjects, see Fraser, Algiers, 30 September 1768, TNA, FO 3/3, fols. 98v–99r.

107 Kaiser and Calafat, “Violence, Protection and Commerce,” 80.

108 “Three Letters from the Dey of Algiers to the King relating to Passes granted by Lieutenant Colonel Johnson, 2nd Letter,” received 17 August 1764, TNA, PC 1/7/147, fol. 3r–v.

109 “Extract from the Original registered in the Chancery Office of His Majesty's Consulat at Tripoly in Barbary,” TNA, FO 76/1, fol. 164v. This passport was a passavant rather than a regular Mediterranean pass.

110 On this incident, see Fraser to Hallifax, Tripoli 4 April 1765, TNA, 76/2, fols. 8r–11r; Hamed Aga to Shelburne, London, 9 September 1766, and “Journal ou l'on decrit tout ce qui s'est passé depuis le premier jour qu'on Prit le Bâttiment à Petrasse Comme assui avec le Sieur Consul de sa Majesté Brittanique,” TNA, FO 76/2, fols. 83r–84r, 85r–90r; Hudson to Harrison, Deal Castle at Genoa, 7 September 1765, TNA, ADM 1/385.

111 At the end of the eighteenth century, observers recalled Britain's costly war with Morocco from 1714 to 1721 as a warning against initiating hostilities with the North African regencies. See “Memoranda respecting Corsica and the Barbary States,” ca. 1798, TNA, FO 95/1/3, fol. 212r–v.

112 Bruce, Algier, 20 July 1764, TNA, FO 3/1, fols. 209v–210v; Halifax to Bruce, St. James's, 1 January 1765, TNA, FO 3/2, fols. 1r–2r.

113 Conway to Fraser, St. James's, 5 November 1765, TNA, FO 76/2.

114 Fraser, Algiers, 14 April 1768, TNA, FO 3/3, fol. 62v.

115 “Political Journal and Register, Algiers, 1767–8,” 2 March 1768, BL Add MS 74252.

116 Fraser, Algiers, 30 September 1768, TNA, FO 3/3, fol. 98v. See also Boyd to Hardy, Gibraltar, 29 July 1769, Letters of Consuls & Ambassadors, Lisbon and Cadiz, 1768–1797, 5, GGA.

117 Fraser, Algiers, 14 April 1768, TNA, FO 3/3, fol. 61v.

118 Fraser, Algiers, 17 October and 20 October 1772, TNA, FO 3/4, fol. 205r, 208r–209v.

119 Joseph Brame, Robert Aubert, and John Heath to Hollford, Genoa, 4 September 1776, TNA, FO 28/1, fol. 35v; Spry, “Remarks.”

120 Pennell, C. R., “Treaty Law: The Extent of Consular Jurisdiction in North Africa from the Middle of the Seventeenth to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of North African Studies 14, no. 2 (June 2009): 235–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 250.

121 The governor of Gibraltar, General Augustus Elliot, had two years earlier committed himself to preventing foreigners from obtaining passes at Gibraltar, but reversed that approach when the supply of the garrison became critical during the Great Siege of 1779–83; compare Elliot to Collet, Gibraltar, 23 October 1777 and Raleigh to Collet, Gibraltar, 28 June 1779, GGA Letters to Consuls & Ambassadors, Genoa, Barcelona, Alicante & France, 31, 44. On the case of Podestà, see Muller, “The Garrison Revisited,” 12–13.

122 “Report of the Transactions at Algiers between the Dey and Regency and Sir Roger Curtis,” TNA, FO 3/6, fol. 347v; Relation of Patron Podestà, Algiers, 25 November 1781, TNA, CO 91/28.

123 Elliot to Davison, Gibraltar, 22 October 1780, 30 April 1781, and 2 May 1781, Letters to Consuls & Ambassadors, Tripoli, Tunis & Algiers, 1769–1797, 19–20, 24–25, GGA; Davison to Fox, Algiers, 6 June 1782, TNA, FO 3/6, fol. 50r–v; abstracts of letters from Davison to Elliot, 16 August 1781 and 24 December 1781, TNA, CO 91/28.

124 Curtis to Nepean, Livorno, 10 July 1783, TNA, FO 52/5, fols. 69r–70r; Davison to Nepean, London, 1 August 1783, TNA, FO 3/6, fol. 87v.

125 Davison to Thomas Townsend, Lazzaretto at Livorno, 14 February 1783, TNA, FO 3/6, fol. 58r.

126 Holland, Blue-Water Empire, chap. 1.

127 Benady, “The Settee Cut,” 292; Blaquière, Edward, Letters from the Mediterranean; Containing a Civil and Political Account of Sicily, Tripoly, Tunis, and Malta (London, 1813)Google Scholar, 2:340–43; Crouzet, François, L’économie britannique et le blocus continental (1806–1813) (Paris, 1958)Google Scholar, 2:696.

128 The North African governments generally respected the passes given to vessels at Malta after the island's British officials began issuing “settee”-form scalloped Mediterranean passes in 1805. Conversely, consuls regularly reported on the limited effectiveness of the written passes that were given to Corsican and Sicilian vessels and to foreign ships supplying British forces. For example, compare Henry Blanckley to Collingwood, Algiers, 27 August 1809 and Blanckley to Hildebrand Oakes, Algiers, 29 September 1810 and 29 January 1811, TNA, FO 3/56, 151, 193, 216.

129 On this last point, see Pennell, C. R., “The Origins of the Foreign Jurisdiction Act and the Extension of British Sovereignty,” Historical Research 83, no. 221 (August 2010): 465–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Sakis Gekas, “Colonial Migrants and the Making of a British Mediterranean,” European Review of History—Revue européene d'histoire 19, no. 1 (February 2012): 75–92. On problems of identification and jurisdiction in nineteenth-century North Africa, see Clancy-Smith, Julia A., Mediterraneans: North Africa and Europe in an Age of Migration, c. 1800–1900 (Berkeley, 2012)Google Scholar, chap. 6.

130 Castlereagh to Bathurst, Foreign Office, 29 January 1816, TNA, FO 8/2, fol. 23v. On the relationship between changing conceptions of the European state system and Europe's relationship with the North African regencies, see Windler, Christian, “Diplomatic History as a Field for Cultural Analysis: Muslim–Christian Relations in Tunis, 1700–1840,” Historical Journal 44, no. 1 (March 2001): 79–106CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

131 Benady, “The Settee Cut,” 294.

132 Silk Buckingham, James, Autobiography of James Silk Buckingham: Including his Voyages, Travels, Adventures, Speculations, Successes and Failures (London, 1855)Google Scholar, 1:330.