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The King's English and the Security of the Empire: Class, Social Mobility, and Democratization in the British Naval Officer Corps, 1918–1939

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 December 2012

Christopher M. Bell
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Journal of British Studies , Volume 48 , Issue 3 , July 2009 , pp. 695 - 716
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Copyright © North American Conference of British Studies 2009

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References

1 Perkin, Harold, “The Recruitment of Elites in British Society since 1800,” Journal of Social History 12, no. 2 (Winter 1978): 222–34Google Scholar; Glass, D. V., Social Mobility in Britain (London, 1954)Google Scholar; Daunton, Martin, Wealth and Welfare: An Economic and Social History of Britain, 1851–1951 (Oxford, 2005), 402–10Google Scholar.

2 Simon, Brian, The Politics of Educational Reform, 1920–1940 (London, 1974)Google Scholar, and Education and the Social Order, 1940–1990 (New York, 1991), chap. 1; McKibbin, Ross, Classes and Cultures: England, 1918–1951 (Oxford, 1998), 206–71Google Scholar; Sanderson, Michael, Educational Opportunity and Social Change (London, 1987)Google Scholar; Sherington, Geoffrey, English Education, Social Change and War, 1911–20 (Manchester, 1981)Google Scholar.

3 Simon, Politics of Educational Reform, chap. 7.

4 Speech by F. Seymour Cocks to the House of Commons, 11 March 1937, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 319, col. 1446.

5 Leading telegraphist Thomas, C. R. to his family, 11 January 1939, in British Naval Documents, 1204–1960, ed. John B. Hattendorf et al. (Aldershot, 1993), 1002Google Scholar.

6 Rubenstein, William D., “Britain's Elites in the Inter-war Period, 1918–39,” Contemporary British History 12, no. 1 (Spring 1998): 1–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Harold Perkin's pioneering work on elite recruitment excluded the armed services entirely (Perkin, “Recruitment of Elites,” 225). There have been numerous studies of recruitment to various elite groups in Britain, but the Royal Navy has been largely overlooked. On the post-1945 period, see Grusky, Oscar, “Career Patterns and Characteristics of British Naval Officers,” British Journal of Sociology 26, no. 1 (March 1975): 35–51Google Scholar. The British army has been much better served. See, esp., P. E. Razzell, “Social Origins of Officers in the Indian and British Home Army,” British Journal of Sociology 14, no. 3 (June 1963): 248–60; C. B. Otley, “The Social Origins of British Army Officers,” Sociological Review 18, no. 2 (July 1970): 213–40, and “The Educational Background of British Army Officers,” Sociology 7, no. 2 (May 1973): 191–209; Hugh Cunningham, “Elites and the Army in Britain, 1850–1950,” in Geburt oder Leistung? Elitenbildung im deutsch-britischen Vergleich: Birth or Talent? The Formation of Elites in British-German Comparison, ed. Franz Bosbach, Keith Robbins, and Karina Urbach (Munich, 2003), 91–100. Naval historians have shown little interest in filling this void. Studies of the social life of the service during the first half of the twentieth century have concentrated overwhelmingly on the lower deck. See, esp., Carew, Anthony, The Lower Deck of the Royal Navy, 1900–1939 (Manchester, 1981)Google Scholar; and McKee, Christopher, Sober Men and True: Sailor Lives in the Royal Navy, 1900–1945 (Cambridge, MA, 2002)Google Scholar. The latter study effectively challenges popular stereotypes of the British sailor, but no comparable study exists for the naval officer, who continues to be reduced to a caricature in many studies.

8 Cannadine, David, The Decline and Fall of the British Aristocracy (New Haven, CT, 1990), 236–39, 264–80Google Scholar; Otley, “Social Origins of British Army Officers.”

9 John Fisher memorandum, “State Education in the Navy,” March 1906, cited in Marder, Arthur, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, 5 vols. (Oxford, 1961), 1:30–31Google Scholar.

10 Admiral of the Fleet Lord Fisher, Records (London, 1919), 160Google ScholarPubMed.

11 Winton, John, “Life and Education in a Technically Evolving Navy, 1815–1925,” in Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy, ed. Hill, J. R. (Oxford, 1995), 251–79Google Scholar; Historicus [Harry Pursey], “Lower Deck to Quarterdeck, 1818 to 1937,” in Brassey's Naval Annual, 1938, ed. Rear-Admiral H. G. Thursfield (London, 1939), 87–105.

12 Admiralty memorandum, “Special Entry of Naval Cadets,” March 1913, the National Archives (TNA): Public Record Office (PRO), Admirality (ADM) 116/1213.

13 Simpson, Keith, “The Officers,” in A Nation in Arms, ed. Beckett, Ian F.W. and Simpson, Keith (London, 1985), 63–96Google Scholar.

14 [Lieutenant-Commander C. A. G. Hutchison], “The Spirit of Democracy and the Navy,” Naval Review 9, no. 3 (August 1921): 342–55.

15 Memorandum by Vice-Admiral William James, “Promotion from Lower Deck,” 19 February 1937, TNA: PRO ADM 1/9092.

16 Till, Geoffrey, “Richmond and the Faith Reaffirmed: British Naval Thinking between the Wars,” in The Development of British Naval Thinking, ed. Till, Geoffrey (London, 2006), 103–33Google Scholar.

17 Minute by Vice-Admiral Henry Oliver, 24 April 1922, TNA: PRO ADM 167/86.

18 Report of Committee on Training of Midshipmen, 26 February 1918, TNA: PRO ADM 116/1734.

19 Minority report by Captain Herbert Richmond, 27 February 1918, TNA: PRO ADM 116/1734.

20 Director of training minute, 13 January 1918, and Rosslyn Wemyss minute, 17 January 1918, TNA: PRO ADM 116/1734.

21 Herbert Heath minute, 16 January 1918, TNA: PRO ADM 116/1734; see also “Extract from Private Letter from Commander Brand,” 10 January 1918, and Charles Madden to Beatty, “Promotions from the Lower Deck,” 2 March 1918, TNA: PRO ADM 116/1734.

22 Herbert Heath minute, 16 January 1918, TNA: PRO ADM 116/1734.

23 Herbert Richmond minute, 26 April 1918, TNA: PRO ADM 116/1734.

24 Herbert Richmond minority report, 27 February 1918, TNA: PRO ADM 116/1734.

25 Hunt, Barry D., Sailor-Scholar: Admiral Sir Herbert Richmond, 1871–1946 (Waterloo, 1982), 94Google Scholar; see also Barry D. Hunt, “Richmond and the Education of the Royal Navy,” in Mahan Is Not Enough, ed. James Goldrick and John B. Hattendorf (Newport, RI, 1993), 65–81. Stephen Roskill also exaggerates Heath's opposition to this scheme (Naval Policy between the Wars, 2 vols. [London, 1968], 1:121).

26 “Report of the Committee Appointed to Consider Questions Concerning the Entry & Cost of Training of Naval Cadets,” 12 February 1919, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8551/41.

27 Minute by the head of naval branch, 25 November 1919, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8567/249.

28 Report of Committee on Training of Boys, Boy Artificers, and Young Seamen for Commissions in H.M. Navy, 7 November 1919, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8567/249.

29 Director of training and staff duties (DTSD) minute, 25 November 1919, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8567/249.

30 Evidence of Admiral Herbert Richmond, 27 November 1930, TNA: PRO ADM 116/2799.

31 Evidence of F. S. Orme, headmaster of grammar school, Reigate, representing the Association of Headmasters, 20 November 1930, TNA: PRO ADM 116/2799.

32 Evidence of Rear-Admiral H. E. Dunbar-Nasmith (formerly the officer in command at Dartmouth), 11 December 1930, TNA: PRO ADM 116/2799.

33 Democrat, “The Age of Entry,” Naval Review 21, no. 3 (November 1933): 690.

34 Minute by the head of naval branch, 25 November 1919, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8567/249.

35 Undated memoranda, “Notes for Report by Admiral of the Fleet Sir Osmond de B. Brock” and “Notes for Report by Rear-Admiral Plunkett-Ernle-Erle-Drax,” TNA: PRO ADM 116/2800.

36 “Report of the Committee Appointed to Consider Questions Concerning the Entry and Cost of Training of Naval Cadets,” 12 February 1919, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8551/41.

37 Board of Admiralty minute 644, 20 February 1919, TNA: PRO ADM 167/56.

38 Betts, Robin, Dr. Macnamara, 1861–1931 (Liverpool, 1999)Google Scholar.

39 Financial secretary memorandum, “Cost of Training of Naval Cadets,” 20 March 1919, TNA: PRO ADM 167/58.

40 Report of Committee on Training of Boys, Boy Artificers, and Young Seamen for Commissions in H.M. Navy, 7 November 1919, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8567/249.

41 Undated memorandum, “The Method of Recruiting Commissioned Officers from the Royal Navy,” TNA: PRO ADM 167/61.

42 Beatty memorandum, 8 February 1920, TNA: PRO ADM 167/61.

43 Board of Admiralty minute 1148, 11 February 1920, TNA: PRO ADM 167/60; memorandum by T. J. Macnamara, “Promotion from the Lower Deck: Comment by the Financial Secretary on the Memorandum for the Board Prepared by the First Sea Lord Dated 8th February,” 10 February 1920, TNA: PRO ADM 167/61.

44 Sir George Barstow (treasury) to admiralty, 30 June 1920, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8567/249; Board of Admiralty minute 1234, 8 July 1920, TNA: PRO ADM 167/60.

45 “From the Lower Deck: The Mate System,” The Times, 18 March 1937, 17.

46 Sanderson, Educational Opportunity, 76–77.

47 Speech by Lieutenant-Commander Joseph Kenworthy to the House of Commons, 14 March 1927, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 203, col. 1792. In 1922, annual boarding fees at the prestigious Clarendon public schools ranged from £129 (Westminster) to £230 (Eton). Gardner, Brian, The Public Schools (London, 1973), 231Google Scholar.

48 Speech by Lieutenant-Commander Joseph Kenworthy to the House of Commons, 31 July 1924, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 173, col. 2315.

49 See McKibbin, Classes and Cultures, 50–62, 104–5; Cannadine, David, Class in Britain (London, 1998), 130Google Scholar.

50 Speech by Lieutenant-Commander Joseph Kenworthy to the House of Commons, 14 March 1927, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 203, col. 1793. As McKibbin notes, the profiteer was a particular object of middle class disdain during these years (Classes and Cultures, 57).

51 Parkinson, Michael, The Labour Party and the Organization of Secondary Education, 1918–65 (London, 1970)Google Scholar; Sherington, English Education, Social Change and War; Barker, Rodney, Education and Politics, 1900–1951 (Oxford, 1972)Google Scholar.

52 Snowden, Philip, Labour and the New World (London, 1921), 231Google Scholar; Sanderson, Educational Opportunity, 78–80.

53 Chelmsford memorandum for the board, “Fees for Naval Cadets: Proposed Further Reductions in Certain Cases,” 2 May 1924, TNA: PRO ADM 167/68.

54 Memorandum by Admiral Henry Oliver, Charles Ammon, and Oswyn Murray for the first lord, “Fees for Naval Cadets: Proposed Further Reductions in Certain Cases,” 25 and 28 April 1924, TNA: PRO ADM 167/68; Board of Admiralty minute 1887, 19 May 1924, TNA: PRO ADM 167/69.

55 Speech by William Bridgeman to the House of Commons, 14 March 1927, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 203, col. 1804. Kenworthy estimated that the abolition of fees at Dartmouth would cost the state about £68,000 per annum. Speech by Lieutenant-Commander Joseph Kenworthy to the House of Commons, 14 March 1927, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 203, col. 1793.

56 Undated memorandum, “Promotion from the Lower Deck,” TNA: PRO ADM 167/80.

57 Board of Admiralty minute 2649, 31 October 1929, TNA: PRO ADM 167/79.

58 Speech by A. V. Alexander to the House of Commons, 17 March 1930, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 236, col. 1861.

59 Memorandum by the first lord to the first and second sea lords, “Commissioned Officers: Possibility of Obtaining Suitable Candidates from All Classes of the Community,” 25 March 1930, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8740/53.

60 Second sea lord memorandum, 6 May 1930, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8740/53.

61 Charles Madden memorandum, “First Sea Lord's Reply: Democratisation,” 7 May 1930, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8740/53.

62 ibid., app. I.

63 ibid.

64 Board of Admiralty minute 2728, 11 July 1930, TNA: PRO ADM 167/81.

65 Board of Admiralty minute 2742, 29 July 1930, TNA: PRO ADM 167/81.

66 Undated memoranda, “Notes for Report by Admiral of the Fleet Sir Osmond de B. Brock,” and “Notes for Report by Rear-Admiral Plunkett-Ernle-Erle-Drax,” TNA: PRO ADM 116/2800.

67 Report of Committee on the Present Systems of Cadet Entry, 29 June 1931, TNA: PRO ADM 116/2791.

68 Board of Admiralty minute 2842, 7 July 1931, TNA: PRO ADM 167/83.

69 Finance Committee minute, 23 February 1933, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8767/102.

70 A. V. Alexander to H. B. Lees-Smith (president of the Board of Education), 20 July 1931, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8747/81; A. V. Alexander, “Bennett Committee Report: Memorandum for Consideration by Conference,” 24 July 1931, TNA: PRO ADM 116/2893.

71 “Note of a Conference,” 29 July 1931, TNA: PRO ADM 1/8747/81.

72 Speech by A. V. Alexander to the House of Commons, 16 March 1936, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 310, col. 83.

73 Memorandum by the head of the Commissions and Warrants Branch, 15 May 1929, TNA: PRO ADM 116/3057.

74 See, e.g., ibid.; minute by the DTSD, 4 February 1931, TNA: PRO ADM 116/3057.

75 Pursey memorandum, “Lower Deck Promotion to Commissioned Rank,” 30 September 1930, TNA: PRO ADM 116/3057.

76 Report of Committee on the Mate System of Promotion to Commissioned Rank, 24 February 1931, TNA: PRO ADM 116/3058.

77 Board of Admiralty minute 2822, 7 May 1931, TNA: PRO ADM 167/83. These recommendations were announced to Parliament in May and implemented between October 1931 and December 1932. Roskill, Naval Policy, 2:34–35.

78 See Christopher M. Bell, “The Royal Navy and the Lessons of the Invergordon Mutiny,” War in History 12, no. 1 (January 2005): 75–92.

79 Speech by Lady Astor to the House of Commons, 11 March 1937, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 319, col. 1441.

80 Speech by Commander Arthur Marsden to the House of Commons, 17 March 1938, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 333, col. 686.

81 Dudley Pound to admiralty, 21 March 1937, TNA: PRO ADM 1/9082.

82 William Fisher to admiralty, 11 March 1937, TNA: PRO ADM 1/9082.

83 “Notes on the Recent Agitation in the Press for an Increase in Number of Lower Deck Commissions,” 2 March 1937, TNA: PRO ADM 167/97.

84 McKee, Sober Men and True, chap. 2.

85 McKibbin, Classes and Cultures, 137–38.

86 Roger Backhouse to admiralty, 6 March 1937, TNA: PRO ADM 1/9082.

87 Memorandum by Vice-Admiral William James, “Promotion from Lower Deck,” 19 February 1937, TNA: PRO ADM 1/9092.

88 Undated memorandum by Commander William-Powlett, “Sub Lieutenants Ex Lower Deck,” TNA: PRO ADM 1/9092.

89 Memorandum by Vice-Admiral William James, “Promotion from Lower Deck,” 19 February 1937, TNA: PRO ADM 1/9092.

90 Speech by Lord Stanley to the House of Commons, 10 March 1937, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 321, col. 1136.

91 Burroughs to Cork, 10 November 1937, TNA: PRO ADM 116/3989.

92 Cork to Dunbar Nasmith, 17 November 1937, and Chatfield minute, 24 November 1937, TNA: PRO ADM 116/3989.

93 Best to Lord Stanhope, 2 December 1938, TNA: PRO ADM 1/20540.

94 ibid.

95 Fred Noble to Chatfield, 3 and 28 December 1936, Chatfield papers, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich 3/1.

96 Chatfield to Fred Nobel, 6 January 1937, Chatfield papers, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich 3/1.

97 Frederic Dreyer to Stanhope, 15 March 1939, TNA: PRO ADM 1/20540.

98 The director of the admiralty's education division estimated that the number was 69 percent. Minute of 30 May 1939, TNA: PRO ADM 1/20540.

99 Gilbert, Martin, ed., The Churchill War Papers, vol. 1 (New York, 1993), 730–31, 974–76Google Scholar.

100 For a good recent study, see Lavery, Brian, Hostilities Only: Training the Wartime Royal Navy (London, 2004), 134–75Google Scholar.