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² Wagner, Children, 259. See also Parr, Joy, Labouring Children: British Immigrant Apprentices to Canada, 1869–1924 (London, 1980)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Michele Langfield, “Voluntarism, Salvation, and Rescue: British Juvenile Migration to Australia and Canada, 1890–1939,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 32, no. 2 (May 2004): 86–114, provides a comprehensive list of early twentieth-century emigration organizations. A 1924 Canadian ban on the immigration of school-aged children forced many of these societies to give up their schemes during the interwar period; however two charities, Barnardo's and the Child Emigration (later Fairbridge) Society, sustained the policy by shifting focus to Australia, where they sent several thousand more boys and girls before the schemes disbanded in 1967. Paul, Kathleen, “Changing Childhoods: Child Emigration since 1945,” in Child Welfare and Social Action in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: International Perspectives, ed. Lawrence, Jon and Starkey, Pat (Liverpool, 2001), 121–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Constantine, Stephen, “The British Government, Child Welfare, and Child Migration to Australia after 1945,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 30, no. 1 (January 2002): 99–132CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Grier, Julie, “Voluntary Rights and Statutory Wrongs: The Case of Child Migration, 1948–1967,” History of Education 31, no. 3 (2002): 263–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹¹ Zelizer, Viviana, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York, 1985)Google Scholar; Cunningham, Hugh, Children of the Poor: Representations of Childhood since the Seventeenth Century (London, 1992)Google Scholar; Steedman, Carolyn, Strange Dislocations: Childhood and the Idea of Human Interiority, 1780–1930 (Cambridge, 1995)Google Scholar; Hendrick, Harry, “Constructions and Reconstructions of British Childhood: An Interpretative Survey, 1800 to the Present,” in Constructing and Reconstructing Childhood, ed. James, Allison and Prout, Alan (London, 1997), 34–62Google Scholar.

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¹⁵ Searle, G. R., The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1899–1914 (Berkeley, 1971)Google Scholar; Jordan, Thomas, The Degeneracy Crisis and Victorian Youth (Albany, NY, 1993)Google Scholar; Soloway, Richard, Demography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in Twentieth-Century Britain (Chapel Hill, NC, 1990)Google Scholar. For the impact of these concerns on child welfare policy outside Britain, see Koven, Seth and Michel, Sonya, eds., Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York, 1993)Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Jones, Gareth Stedman, Outcast London: A Study in the Relationship between Classes in Victorian Society (Oxford, 1971)Google Scholar. For a helpful explication of the term “residuum” within Victorian social and political debates, see JHarris, ose, “Between Civic Virtue and Social Darwinism: The Concept of the Residuum,” in Retrieved Riches: Social Investigation in Britain, 1840–1914, ed. Englander, David and O’Day, Rosemary (Aldershot, 1995), 67–87Google Scholar.

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¹⁸ Parliamentary Papers (PP), 1904, vol. 32, Cd. 2175, “Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration.”

¹⁹ While most mainstream reformers abided by this class-bound vision of children's potential, some socialist campaigners, most notably Margaret McMillan, argued that poor children held the same promise as their more privileged peers. See Carolyn Steedman, “Bodies, Figures and Physiology: Margaret McMillan and the Late Ninteenth-Century Remaking of Working-Class Childhood,” in In the Name of the Child: Health and Welfare, 1880–1940, ed. Roger Cooter (New York, 1992), 19–44.

²⁰ Murdoch, Imagined Orphans, 120–41.

²¹ ibid., 61.

²² Swain, Shurlee, “Child Rescue: The Emigration of an Idea,” in Lawrence and Starkey, Child Welfare and Social Action, 101–20. One prominent child rescue organization that diverged from this view was the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC), which espoused family intervention to correct instances of neglect and abuse. See George Behlmer, Child Abuse and Moral Reform in England, 1870–1908 (Stanford, CA, 1982)Google Scholar. Nevertheless, the NSPCC did favor removing children from their families in extreme cases, and, indeed, the society participated in child emigration to Canada during the early twentieth century. For a statement of the views of its director relating to child emigration, see Robert Parr to Home Office, 22 June 1910, The National Archives: Public Record Office (TNA: PRO) HO 45/10598/188663.

²³ Barnardo's Homes, Annual Report, 1911, p. 8, D.239/A3/1/46, ULSCA.

²⁴ Barnardo's Homes, “A Gilt-Edged Investment,” Night and Day 29 (December 1906): 7. Emphasis in the original.

²⁵ Murdoch, Imagined Orphans, 43–66.

²⁶ Barnardo's Homes, “Seedpods of Success—Not Failures,” promotional leaflet, 1913, D.239/A3/17/10, ULSCA.

²⁷ Ward, Stuart, “The End of Empire and the Fate of Britishness,” in History, Nationhood, and the Question of Britain, ed. Brocklehurst, Helen and Phillips, Robert (New York, 2004), 245Google Scholar.

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²⁹ Barnardo's Homes, Alfred Owen, “Our March Past,” 1908, D.239/A3/18/34, ULSCA.

³⁰ For a comprehensive overview of Fairbridge's life and work, see Geoffrey Sherington and Jeffrey, Chris, Fairbridge: Empire and Child Migration (London, 1998)Google Scholar.

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³³ For other examples of how these distinctions between the “whiteness” of different Europeans were enacted in immigration and social policies across the settler empire, see, e.g., Mlambo, Alois, “‘Some Are More White than Others’: Racial Chauvinism as an Actor in Rhodesia Immigration Policy, 1890–1963,” Zambezia 27, no. 2 (2000): 139–60Google Scholar; Klausen, Susanne, Race, Maternity, and the Politics of Birth Control in South Africa, 1910–1939 (New York, 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Anderson, Warwick, The Cultivation of Whiteness: Science, Health and Racial Destiny in Australia (New York, 2003), 139–64Google Scholar.

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³⁵ Kingsley Fairbridge, “The Farm-School System: A Suggestion,” The Times, 24 May 1910, 46.

³⁶ Earlier proposals for farm schools in Canada and New Zealand had focused on juveniles over the age of fourteen. Fairbridge's school was the first specifically to target children. See Sherington and Jeffery, Fairbridge, 13–14.

³⁷ The inspection reports of the state child welfare department give a sense of the conditions at Pinjarra in its early days. See, e.g., Copy of A. O. Neville's Report on Pinjarra, 28 July 1913, Sherington Papers, box 1, State Library of New South Wales.

³⁸ CES, Annual Report, September 1913, p. 11, D.296/D1/2/4, ULSCA.

³⁹ Fairbridge's system was also taken up by other child emigration charities. Barnardo's established a farm school in Picton, New South Wales, in 1929, as well as a branch exclusively for girls on the outskirts of Sydney in 1933. In 1937, the Australian government approved the Catholic Christian Brothers organization to begin accepting British boys in their farm schools in Western Australia, and in 1938 the Trustees of the Lady Northcote bequest opened the Northcote Children's Farm in Victoria. On the extension of the farm school system to Canada, see Patrick Dunae, “Gender, Generations and Social Class: The Fairbridge Society and British Child Migration to Canada, 1930–1960,” in Lawrence and Starkey, Child Welfare and Social Action, 82–100.

⁴⁰ CES, Arthur Lawley, “Our Children,” promotional leaflet, 1922, D.296/F1/2, ULSCA.

⁴¹ On this imperial lobby, see Constantine, Stephen, The Making of British Colonial Development Policy: 1914–1940 (London, 1984)Google Scholar; Williams, Keith, “‘A Way Out of Our Troubles’: The Politics of Empire Settlement, 1900–1922,” in Emigrants and Empire: British Settlement in the Dominions between the Wars, ed. Constantine, Stephen (Manchester, 1990), 22–44Google Scholar; Fedorowich, Kent, Unfit for Heroes: Reconstruction and Soldier Settlement in the Empire between the Wars (Manchester, 1995)Google Scholar.

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⁴³ CES, Annual Report, 1931, pp. 5–6, D.296/D1/1/1, ULSCA.

⁴⁴ Kingsley Fairbridge to the Commonwealth Superintendent for Immigration, 1 October 1921, A436, 46/5/597 Part 1A, Australian National Archives (ANA).

⁴⁵ See, e.g., the attempts made in South Africa by Barnardo's in 1904 as well as Christ's Hospital in 1921. Stuart Barnardo, Journal of a Visit to South Africa, 1904, D.239/A3/17/42, ULSCA; Christ's Hospital to the Oversea Settlement Committee, 1921, TNA: PRO Colonial Office (CO) 721/32.

⁴⁶ A. G. B. West, “Fairbridge Farm Schools (Inc.) Rhodesian Prospects,” 1936, TNA: PRO Dominions Office (DO) 35/697/4.

⁴⁷ Quoted in Kennedy, Islands, 2.

⁴⁸ On African social mobility in early twentieth-century Southern Rhodesia, see West, Michael, The Rise of an African Middle Class: Colonial Zimbabwe, 1898–1965 (Bloomington, IN, 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ranger, Terence, Are We Not Also Men? The Samkange Family and African Politics in Zimbabwe, 1920–1964 (London, 1995)Google ScholarPubMed.

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⁵⁰ Mlambo, “‘Some Are More White than Others.’”

⁵¹ Donal Lowry, “‘White Woman's Country’: Ethel Tawse Jollie and the Making of White Rhodesia,” Journal of Southern African Studies 23, no. 2 (June 1997): 259–81.

⁵² Challiss, Bob, “Education and Southern Rhodesia's Poor Whites, 1890–1930,” in White but Poor: Essays on the History of Poor Whites in Southern Africa, 1880–1940, ed. Morrell, Robert (Pretoria, 1992), 151–70Google Scholar.

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⁵⁴ Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire, 137–64, and Carnal Knowledge, 112–39.

⁵⁵ West, “Rhodesian Prospects.”

⁵⁶ Fairbridge Society, Minutes of the Southern Rhodesia Committee, 1 September 1938, D.296/K2/1/7, ULSCA.

⁵⁷ Fairbridge Society, “Notes of a Meeting Held at Mr Hambro's House,” 26 May 1937, D.296/K2/1/2, ULSCA.

⁵⁸ ibid.

⁵⁹ Gordon Green to G. F. Plant, 8 February 1937, TNA: PRO DO 35/708/4.

⁶⁰ Malcolm Delevingne to High Commissioner's Office, 11 August 1945, A445, 133/2/115, ANA.

⁶¹ For a full discussion of the repatriation of child migrants, see Boucher, Ellen, “‘An Imperial Investment’: British State-Assisted Child Emigration to Australia and Southern Rhodesia, 1869–1967” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 2008)Google Scholar.

⁶² Fairbridge Society, Bertie Heilbron, “Report on the Possibility & Desirability of Founding a Fairbridge Farm School in S Rhodesia,” January 1938, D.296/K2/1/5, ULSCA.

⁶³ The Poor White Problem in South Africa: Report of the Carnegie Commission, 5 vols. (Stellenbosch, 1932).

⁶⁴ Fairbridge Society, Minutes of the Southern Rhodesia Committee, 27 October 1938.

⁶⁵ Fairbridge Society, “Notes of a Meeting.”

⁶⁶ For an analysis of this view with particular regard to imperial child welfare policy, see David Arnold, “European Orphans and Vagrants in India in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 7, no. 2 (January 1979): 104–27.

⁶⁷ Klausen, Race, Maternity, and Politics, 63–65.

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⁶⁹ Fairbridge Society, Minutes of the Southern Rhodesia Committee, 27 October 1938.

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⁷⁶ Fairbridge Society, Report of the Southern Rhodesia Committee, February 1939, D.296/K2/1/10, ULSCA.

⁷⁷ ibid.

⁷⁸ The association entered into an agreement with the British Federation of Social Workers to make these evaluations soon after the conclusion of the war. Women's Group on Public Welfare, Child Emigration: A Study Made in 1948–1950 (London, 1951), 20.

⁷⁹ Fairbridge Society, Report of the Southern Rhodesia Committee. The existing records are unclear as to how high children's IQ needed to be for admission; however in 1948, Barnardo's estimated the standard to be 130. Barnardo’s, Irwin to Hambro, 8 July 1948, D.296/ K2/2/1, ULSCA.

⁸⁰ Rhodesia Fairbridge Memorial College brochure, 1954, D.296, K2/4/5, ULSCA. Ultimately the Fairbridge Society judged that these new criteria of selection required the formation of a separate organization. Accordingly, the subcommittee disbanded in 1939, and some of its members regrouped as the Rhodesia Fairbridge Memorial Association.

⁸¹ Rose, Governing the Soul, and The Psychological Complex.

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⁸⁵ Note by C. R. Price on Bertie Heilbron, “Report on the Possibility of Founding a Fairbridge Farm in Southern Rhodesia,” 21 February 1939, TNA: PRO DO 35/697/5.

⁸⁶ Rhodesia Fairbridge Memorial College Information Sheet, 1948, D.296/K2/3/1, ULSCA.

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