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²² Raleigh, Walter, The History of the World, ed. Patrides, C. A. (London, 1971), 133CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the notion of paradise as a labor-free space, see Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York, 1973), 30–32Google Scholar. See also, with respect to Kashmir as a cultivated paradise, Bernier, François, Travels in the Mogul Empire, 2nd ed., rev. by Vincent A. Smith (London, 1914), 397Google Scholar. The first English translation of the Bernier text was published in 1671; translation on the basis of Irving Brock's version and annotation by Archibald Constable was published in 1891.

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³¹ Terry, Voyage, 92, emphasis added.

³² Ibid., 92, emphasis added.

³³ Ibid., 102, 95–97.

³⁴ Herbert, Relation, 182–83, 184, emphasis added.

³⁵ Fryer, Account, 56, 76.

³⁶ Ibid., 134–35.

³⁷ Ibid., 179.

³⁸ Ibid., 178–83, emphasis added.

³⁹ Ibid., 186, 188, 411–12.

⁴⁰ Hamilton, Alexander, A New Account of the East-Indies, 2 vols. (1727; repr., New Delhi, 1997), 1:160–61, 2:21Google Scholar.

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⁴⁴ Dellon, Voyage, 106.

⁴⁵ Terry, Voyage, 305.

⁴⁶ Orme, Robert, Historical Fragments of the Mogul Empire, of the Morattoes and of the English: Concerns in Indostan from the year MDCLIX, ed. Guha, J. P. (1782; repr., New Delhi, 1974), 300Google Scholar.

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⁴⁸ Ibid., 262. Orme is reiterating what he had said earlier, describing the cultivation of land in India as “scarce a labour” (260).

⁴⁹ Ibid., 263.

⁵⁰ Ibid., 265.

⁵¹ Ibid., 303.

⁵² Ibid., 262.

⁵³ Bolts, William, Considerations on Indian Affairs, particularly respecting the present State of Bengal and its Dependencies with a Map of these Countries chiefly from actual Surveys (London, 1772), 20–22, emphasis addedGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁴ Williams, The Country and the City, 30–34, 120–26.

⁵⁵ Campbell, Witness, 69–71.

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⁵⁸ Terry, Voyage, 102–3, 107–9, 139–41, 141–45.

⁵⁹ Fryer, Account, 34–37.

⁶⁰ Ovington, Surat, 224–26, 303–4.

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⁶⁴ SirRoe, Thomas, The Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to the Court of the Great Mogul, ed. Foster, William (Nendeln/Liechtenstein, 1967), 134Google Scholar.

⁶⁵ Terry, Voyage, 115, 158–59.

⁶⁶ Ibid., 111–18.

⁶⁷ Herbert, Relation, 42, 187–88.

⁶⁸ Fryer, Account, 156, 188–89.

⁶⁹ Ibid., 196.

⁷⁰ Ibid.

⁷¹ Ovington, Surat, 178, 218–19, 319–21.

⁷² Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men, 43.

⁷³ Terry, Voyage, 122, emphasis added.

⁷⁴ Ibid., n.p., in preface.

⁷⁵ Ibid., 418, 419.

⁷⁶ Ibid., 103.

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⁷⁹ Fryer, Account, 46, 76–77.

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⁸³ Ibid.

⁸⁴ Fryer, Account, 125.

⁸⁵ Ibid., 129.

⁸⁶ Ibid., 188–89. Compare the French traveler Gabriel Dellon's description of some “very neatly kept” gardens in Surat, in his Voyage, 40.

⁸⁷ Hardy, The Pious Votary and Prudent Traveler, 52.

⁸⁸ Fryer, Account, 188–89.

⁸⁹ Ibid., 56.

⁹⁰ Ibid., 135.

⁹¹ Ibid., 141–42; these images recur in 178–79, 189–90.

⁹² Terry, Voyage, 173.

⁹³ Ibid., 182.

⁹⁴ Ibid., 419, emphasis added. Bernard Cohn points out that the Englishman preferred to view India from a distance. See Cohn's Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge, 9–10.

⁹⁵ Terry, Voyage, 420.

⁹⁶ Ibid., 421.

⁹⁷ The physical difference between English and Indian climate/landscape/disease was mapped as the essential/unchanging difference between races/cultures. See Harrison, Mark's “‘The Tender Frame of Man’: Disease, Climate, and Racial Difference in India and the West Indies, 1760–1860,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 70, no. 1 (1996): 68–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The detailing of places and their endemic diseases in Fryer and others looks forward to the genre of “medical topography” that appears in the nineteenth century.

⁹⁸ Fryer, Account, 113–14.

⁹⁹ Ovington, Surat, 130–33, 140–41, 143–45, 347–48, 350.

¹⁰⁰ Purchas, Hakluyts Posthumous or Purchas His Pilgrimes, 4:32.

¹⁰¹ Terry, Voyage, 241; Fryer, Account, 68.

¹⁰² Fryer, Account, 188.

¹⁰³ Ibid.

¹⁰⁴ Ibid., 97–98.

¹⁰⁵ Terry, Voyage, n.p., in preface.

¹⁰⁶ Herbert, Relation, 187–88.

¹⁰⁷ Fryer, Account, 31, emphasis added.

¹⁰⁸ Ibid., 93.

¹⁰⁹ Ibid., 73.

¹¹⁰ Ibid., 103. For a detailed analysis of European views of Indian iconography, see Mitter, Partha's Much Maligned Monsters: History of European Reactions to Indian Art (Oxford, 1977)Google Scholar. By emphasizing the Hindu worship of such monsters, the English traveler presented Hinduism itself as “illogical and perverted.” Teltscher, India Inscribed, 23.

¹¹¹ Fryer, Account, 138, 141.

¹¹² Greenblatt, Marvelous Possessions, 20.

¹¹³ Terry, Voyage, 195. As late as 1757 Grose, John, in A Voyage to East Indies (London, 1757), 62–63Google Scholar, undertakes a similar desacralization, describing the Elephanta Caves as offering a potential site for picnics.

¹¹⁴ Ovington, Surat, 292.

¹¹⁵ Terry, Voyage, 158. Compare François Bernier's Travels, e.g., 205, 226, 231, 256–59.

¹¹⁶ Terry, Voyage, 162–63.

¹¹⁷ Orme, Fragments, 299.

¹¹⁸ Terry, Voyage, 134–35.

¹¹⁹ Ibid., 136, emphasis added.

¹²⁰ Ovington, Surat, 279–80.

¹²¹ Terry, Voyage, 189–90.

¹²² Fryer, Account, 43.

¹²³ Ovington, Surat, 143, emphasis added. The weak temperament of the Englishman—especially his penchant for gloom—is the subject of many seventeenth- and eighteenth-century debates.

¹²⁴ Ibid., 144–45, emphasis added.

¹²⁵ Ibid., 313.

¹²⁶ Ibid.

¹²⁷ Thomas Mun, in his A Discourse of Trade, spoke of “religiously avoid[ing] common excesses of food and raiment,” 57. The discourse against luxury—which contextualizes depictions of Indian excesses—was directed primarily against food, clothing, and material culture. See Sekora, John, Luxury: The Concept in Western Thought, from Eden to Smollett (Baltimore, 1977)Google Scholar. For a discussion of debates over the “corruption” of English society due to the Eastern trade, see Bhattacharya, Nandini's Reading the Splendid Body: Gender and Consumerism in Eighteenth-Century English Writing on India (Newark, NJ, 1998), esp. chap. 4Google Scholar.

¹²⁸ Terry, Voyage, 219.

¹²⁹ Ibid., 173–74.

¹³⁰ Ibid., 244.

¹³¹ Herbert, Relation, 184.

¹³² Fryer, Account, 63, 69.

¹³³ Terry, Voyage, 297.

¹³⁴ A central theme of the Grand Tour travelogue was the Englishman's corruption in the lands of excess and loose morals. See Chard, Pleasure and Guilt, 59–61; Warnecke, Educational Traveler, 74–85.

¹³⁵ Fryer, Account, 40, 56.

¹³⁶ Ibid., 82.

¹³⁷ Ibid., 170–71, 53. For a reading of the “Other” as disease, see Bewell, Alan's Romanticism and Colonial Disease (Baltimore, 1999)Google Scholar.

¹³⁸ Purchas, Hakluyts Posthumous or Purchas His Pilgrimes, 4:54.

¹³⁹ Fryer, Account, 39, emphasis added. The English traveler only continues a more general European tradition of interest in the monstrous.

¹⁴⁰ Ibid., 84.

¹⁴¹ Ibid., 63–64.

¹⁴² Ibid., 84.

¹⁴³ Ibid., 105–6, emphasis added.

¹⁴⁴ Ibid., 105, emphasis added.

¹⁴⁵ Ibid., 106, emphasis added.

¹⁴⁶ Ibid., 183.

¹⁴⁷ Hamilton, East-Indies, 105.

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¹⁵² Patricia Seed argues that the “peculiar fixity” of England's settlements was its central characteristic; Ceremonies of Possession, 18–19. This fixity suggested a sense of permanence that contrasted with India's ruins.

¹⁵³ Terry, Voyage, 99–201.

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¹⁵⁶ Fryer, Account, 95–96, 103, 192. The English Poor Law Amendment Act of 1662 suggested that vagrants be sent off to colonies. See Browning, Andrew, ed., English Historical Documents, 1660–1714 (London, 1953), 465Google Scholar. Also Beier, A. L.'s Masterless Men: The Vagrancy Problem in England, 1560–1640 (London, 1985)Google Scholar.

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