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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 13 June 2022
The chronicle of Robert the Monk is a well-known source for the First Crusade and the most copied First Crusade narrative in the Middle Ages. Though the number of copies decreased after the twelfth century, it increased in the fifteenth, with most of these later copies either being preserved in German-speaking lands or originating from there. It is possible that a First Crusade narrative was needed in fifteenth-century German-speaking lands because of their proximity to the struggle against the Ottomans, and the chronicle of Robert the Monk was the only one widely available for copying.
This article was sponsored by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russia, project Nr. MD–277.2021.2. I am very grateful to Sonia Führer (Salzburg), Christine Gigler (Salzburg), Gerald Hirtner (Salzburg), Olivier Marin (Paris), Simon Thomas Parsons (Bristol), Pavel Soukup (Prague), Catherine Squires (Moscow) and to the peer-reviewer for this Journal for very substantial help. I am also grateful to Ardella Crawford for the English editing.
1 Maier, Christoph T., ‘When was the first history of the crusades written?’, in Jensen, Kurt V. and Nielsen, Torben K. (eds), The crusades: history and memory, Turnhout 2021, 15Google Scholar.
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6 See first of all Paul, Nicholas and Yeager, Suzanne (eds), Remembering the crusades: myth, image, and identity, Baltimore, Md 2012Google Scholar; Cassidy-Welch, Megan (ed.), Remembering the crusades and crusading, London 2017Google Scholar; Cassidy-Welch, Megan and Lester, Anne E. (eds), Crusades and memory: rethinking past and present, London 2017CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Buck, Andrew D. and Smith, Thomas W. (eds), Remembering the crusades in medieval texts and songs, Cardiff 2019Google Scholar; and Cassidy-Welch, Megan, War and memory at the time of the Fifth Crusade, University Park, Pa 2019Google Scholar.
7 Humbertus de Romanis, De predicatione crucis, ed. Valentin Portnykh and Christine Vande Veire, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Medievalis (hereinafter cited as CCCM) cclxxix, Turnhout 2018, pp. xii–xx; Portnykh, Valentin, ‘The short version of Humbert of Romans’ Treatise on the preaching of the cross: an edition of the Latin text’, Crusades xv (2016), 55–116Google Scholar. See also a French translation of the long version: Humbert de Romans, Traité sur la prédication de la croisade, ed. and trans. Valentin Portnykh, Corpus Christianorum in Translation xxxix, Turnhout 2022.
8 Portnykh, Valentin, ‘Le Traité d'Humbert de Romans (op) “De la prédication de la sainte Croix”: une hypothèse sur son utilisation dans les guerres saintes du xve siècle’, Revue d'histoire ecclésiastique iii/iv (2014), 588–624CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and ‘An unknown short version of the treatise De predicatione sancte crucis by Humbert of Romans’, Studi Medievali lvi (2015), 721–39.
9 Idem, ‘Le Traité d'Humbert de Romans’, 617–23.
10 The Historia Iherosolimitana of Robert the Monk, ed. Damien Kempf and Marcus Bull, Woodbridge 2013, pp. xlvii–xlviii; Kraft, Friedrich, Heinrich Steinhöwels Verdeutschung der Historia Hierosolymitana des Robertus Monachus: eine litterarhistorische Untersuchung, Strasbourg 1905, 165–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Recueil des historiens des croisades: historiens occidentaux, iii, Paris 1866, p. li.
11 Gesta Dei per Francos, sive orientalium expeditionum, et Regni Francorum Hierosolimitani historia, ed. Jacques Bongars, i, Hannover 1611, 30–81.
12 Recueil des historiens des croisades, iii. 717–882.
13 Ibid. iii, p. xlvii; The Historia Iherosolimitana, p. xlix.
14 The Historia Iherosolimitana, pp. xliii, liii.
15 Ibid. p. lvii.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid. 3; Robert the Monk's History of the First Crusade: Historia Iherosolimitana, trans. Carol Sweetenham, Aldershot 2005, 75.
18 Flori, Jean, Chroniqueurs et propagandistes: introduction critique aux sources de la Première croisade, Genève 2010, 125–6Google Scholar; Robert the Monk's History of the First Crusade, 3; The Historia Iherosolimitana, p. xix.
19 See more in Flori, Chroniqueurs et propagandistes.
20 The Historia Iherosolimitana, 3; Robert the Monk's History of the First Crusade, 75.
21 The Historia Iherosolimitana, 3; Robert the Monk's History of the First Crusade, 75.
22 Flori, Chroniqueurs et propagandistes, 125–6; The Historia Iherosolimitana, pp. xxvi–xxxiv.
23 The Historia Iherosolimitana, p. xxvi.
24 The Historia Ierosolimitana of Baldric of Bourgueil, ed. Steven Biddlecombe, Woodbridge 2014, 4; Baldric of Bourgueil, History of the Jerusalemites: a translation of the Historia Ierosolimitana, trans. Susan B. Edgington, intr. Steven J. Biddlecombe, Woodbridge 2020, 40.
25 Nogent, Guibert de, Dei Gesta per Francos et cinq autres textes, ed. Huygens, R. B. C., CCCM, cxxviiA, Turnhout 1996, 78Google Scholar; The deeds of God through the Franks: a translation of Guibert de Nogent's Gesta Dei per Francos, trans. Robert Levine, Woodbridge 1997, 23.
26 Robert the Monk's History of the First Crusade, 16–19.
27 Ibid. 28–45. See also Marcus Bull, ‘Robert the Monk and his source(s)’, in Bull and Kempf, Writing the early crusades, 127–39.
28 Flori, Chroniqueurs et propagandistes, 129–30; Robert the Monk's History of the First Crusade, 5–7; The Historia Iherosolimitana, pp. xxxiv–xxxvii.
29 The Historia Iherosolimitana, pp. lxv–lxxiv.
30 Kraft, Heinrich Steinhöwels Verdeutschung, 154–64.
31 The Historia Iherosolimitana, pp. lxv–lxxiv.
32 The Historia Ierosollimitana of Baldric of Bourgueil, p. lxxv.
33 Fulcheri Carnotensis Historia Hierosolymitana (1095–1127), ed. Heinrich Hagenmeyer, Heidelberg 1913, 91–104.
34 Albert of Aachen, Historia Ierosolimitana: History of the journey to Jerusalem, ed. and trans. Edgington, Susan B., Oxford 2007, p. xxxviiCrossRefGoogle Scholar.
35 Le ‘Liber’ de Raymond d'Aguilers, ed. John Hugh and Laurita L. Hill, Paris 1969, 21–2.
36 Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hierosoliminatorum: the Deeds of the Franks and the other pilgrims to Jerusalem, ed. Rosalind Hill, London 1962, p. xxxviii. The edition mentions only seven of them, but there is an eighth one discovered by Thomas Smith (Bodleian Library, Oxford, ms Digby 170; England, fifteenth century) and an almost complete copy preserved in Copenhagen, where the very end is missing because a quire lacks one or several folios, a new acquisition of the Royal Library in 2011 (Kongelige Bibliotek, Copenhagen, ms Acc. 2011/5; England, fourteenth century). There are also two fragments: Biblioteca Laurentiana, Florence, ms Ashburnham 1054 (France, Clairvaux, twelfth century) and Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, ms 5511A (thirteenth century). See Samu Niskanen, ‘Copyists and redactors: towards a prolegomenon to the editio princeps of Peregrinatio Antiochie per Urbanum papam facta’, in Outi Merisalo and others (eds), Transmission of knowledge in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Turnhout 2019, 105.
37 Guibert de Nogent, Dei Gesta per Francos, 24.
38 Tudebodus, Petrus, Historia de Hierosolymitano itinere, ed. Hugh, John and Hill, Laurita L., Paris 1977, 19Google Scholar. This edition mentions four of them, and the fifth is a recently identified Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, ms Vat. Reg. lat. 554 datable to the fifteenth century and originating from France: Niskanen, ‘Copyists and redactors’, 105–6.
39 Radulphi Cadomensis Tancredus, ed. Edoardo d'Angelo, CCCM ccxxxi, Turnhout 2011, p. xxiii.
40 The Historia Ierosollimitana of Baldric of Bourgueil, pp. lxxv–ci.
41 Ibid. pp. lxxxix, c.
42 Fulcheri Carnotensis Historia Hierosolymitana, 91–104.
43 Guibert de Nogent, Dei Gesta per Francos, 24–50.
44 Albert of Aachen, Historia Ierosolimitana, pp. xxxvii–xlvii.
45 Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hierosoliminatorum, pp. xxxviii–xli; Petrus Tudebodus, Historia de Hierosolymitano itinere, 19. See also nn. 36, 38 above.
46 Le ‘Liber’ de Raymond d'Aguilers, 21–2.
47 The Historia Iherosolimitana, p. lxv.
48 Description of ms Canon. Class. Lat. 271, <https://medieval.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/catalog/manuscript_2298>.
49 G. I. Lieftinck and J. P. Gumbert, Manuscrits datés conservés dans les Pays-Bas: catalogue paléographique des manuscrits en ecriture latine portant des indications de date, ii, Leiden 1988, 234–5.
50 Catalogue général des manuscrits des bibliothèques publiques de France, LXVI: Suppléments Arsenal, Reims, Paris 1993, 145, 221.
51 The Historia Iherosolimitana, pp. lxv–lxxiv.
52 Robert the Monk's History of the First Crusade, 9–10; Kraft, Heinrich Steinhöwels Verdeutschung, esp. pp. 23–7; Historia Hierosolymitana von Robertus Monachus in deutscher Übersetzung, ed. Barbara Haupt, Wiesbaden 1972, esp. pp. 226–8.
53 Kraft, Heinrich Steinhöwels Verdeutschung, 183–5; Historia Hierosolymitana von Robertus Monachus in deutscher Übersetzung, 223.
54 Black, Robert, Benedetto Accolti and the Florentine Renaissance, Cambridge 1985, 225–6, 299CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
55 The Historia Iherosolimitana, pp. lxv–lxxiv. See also Damien Kempf, ‘Towards a textual archaeology of the First Crusade’, in Bull and Kempf, Writing the early crusades, 116–26.
56 The Historia Iherosolimitana, p. xlii.
57 The Historia Ierosollimitana of Baldric of Bourgueil, pp. lxxxviii, xciv, ci.
58 Fulcheri Carnotensis Historia Hierosolymitana, 97.
59 Guibert de Nogent, Dei Gesta per Francos, 24–50.
60 Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hierosoliminatorum, p. xl.
61 Albert of Aachen, Historia Ierosolimitana, pp. xxxvii, xxxix, xlii.
62 Ibid. pp. xliii–xlv.
63 Description of the manuscript AE. XII. 40 at <manus.iccu.sbn.it//opac_SchedaScheda.php?ID=114372>.
64 Die Kreuzzugsbriefe aus den Jahren 1088–1100: eine Quellensammlung zur Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges, ed. Heinrich Hagenmeyer, Innsbruck 1901, 168–74. For the recent research on this letter and editions of manuscripts which were not taken into account by Hagenmeyer see Smith, ‘The First Crusade letter written at Laodicea’, 17–25, and ‘Scribal crusading’, 164–7.
65 Die Kreuzzugsbriefe aus den Jahren 1088–1100, 146–7.
66 Robert the Monk's History of the First Crusade, 8, 215, 222–3 (English translation).
67 Aeneae Silvii Piccolomini … opera quae extant omnia, Basle 1571, 660–78.
68 For his life see Marios Philippides and Walter K. Hanak, Cardinal Isidore (c.1390–1462): a late Byzantine scholar, warlord, and prelate, London–New York 2018.
69 La caduta di Costantinopoli: le testimonianze dei contemporanei, ed. Agostino Pertusi, i, Milan 1976, 80–91. See also references to previous editions at p. 54.
70 Ibid. i. 92–100; Philippides and Hanak, Cardinal Isidore, 208–10.
71 Paul Pierling, La Russie et le Saint-Siège: études diplomatiques, Paris 1906, 435–6; La caduta di Costantinopoli, i. 114–19.
72 Iorga, Nicolae, Notes et extraits pour servir à l'histoire des croisades au XVe siècle, iv, Bucharest 1915, 287–9Google Scholar.
73 Augustin Theiner, Vetera monumenta Slavorum meridionalium historiam illustrantia, i, Rome 1863, 474–81.
74 Döring, Karoline Dominika, Türkenkrieg und Medienwandel im 15. Jahrhundert, Husum 2013, 71, 220Google Scholar.
75 Birgit Studt, ‘Legationen als Instrumente Päpstlicher Reform- und Kreuzzugspropaganda im 15. Jahrhundert’, in Gerd Althoff (ed.), Formen und Funktionen öffentlicher Kommunikation im Mittelalter, Stuttgart 2001, 428, 432; Birgit Studt, Papst Martin V. (1417–1431) und die Kirchenreform in Deutschland, Köln–Weimar–Wien 2004, 504, 509, 626, 641, 657–8; Benjamin Weber, Lutter contre les Turcs: les formes nouvelles de la croisade pontificale au XVe siècle, Rome 2013, 414–15.
76 See, for example, Carl Göllner, ‘Legenden von der skythischen, und trojanischen und kaukasischen Abstammung der Türken im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert’, Revue des études sud-est européennes xv (1977), 51–3, and Margaret Meserve, Empires of Islam in Renaissance historical thought, Cambridge, Ma 2008, 22–64.
77 See, for example, Kenneth M. Setton, The papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), ii, Philadelphia, Pa 1978, 314–45; Weber, Lutter contre les Turcs, 64, 197, 209, 362–6, 449; Liviu Pilat and Ovidiu Cristea, The Ottoman threat and crusading on the eastern border of Christendom during the 15th century, Leiden 2018, 157–86.
78 Augustin Jungwirth, Katalog der Handschriften des Stiftes St. Peter in Salzburg (handschriftlich auf Karteikarten) [Salzburg 1910–12].
79 Walter Lipphardt, ‘Die älteste Quelle des deutschen “Media vita”, eine Salzburger Handschrift vom Jahre 1456’, Jahrbuch für Liturgik und Hymnologie xi (1966), 161–2.
80 Gerold Hayer, Die deutschen Handschriften des Mittelalters der Erzabtei St. Peter zu Salzburg, Wien 1982, 364–5.
81 Folios with the watermark at 1, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 18, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52, 56, 57, 58, 60, 63, 64, 66, 68, 70, 73, 74, 75, 76, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86, 88, 90, 92, 94, 96, 97, 100, 102, 104, 105, 109, 110, 112, 116, 119, 121, 126, 127, 128, 129.
82 Lucie Doležalova, ‘The Summarium Biblicum: a biblical tool both popular and obscure’, in Eyal Poleg and Laura Light (eds), Form and function in the late medieval Bible, Leiden 2013, 163–84.
83 Frans van Liere, An introduction to the medieval Bible, Cambridge 2014, 248–52.
84 Doležalova, ‘The Summarium Biblicum’, 166.
85 The first (fos 75v–79v) is identified by Hayer: it is a sermon, ‘De excellentia ss. sacramenti et dignitate sacerdotum’, published in PL clxxxiv.981–90. The second (fos 79v–81r) and the third (81r–83r) are not identified, but Hayer was able to determine that these are sermons for Sunday in the Octave of Ascension and for the Fifth Sunday after Easter.
86 Die Kreuzzugsbriefe aus den Jahren 1088–1100, 146–7.
87 Ibid. 130–6.
88 Robert the Monk's History of the First Crusade, 8, 215. Sweetenham mentions that the chronicle of Robert the Monk is accompanied by the apparent letter of Alexius Comnenus in at least thirty-six manuscripts and by the letter of the Patriarch in question in at least thirty-four manuscripts.
89 Hayer, Die deutschen Handschriften, 364.
90 Peter Wind, Die Verzierten Einbände der Handschriften der Erzabtei St. Peter zu Salzburg bis 1600, Wien 1982, 123 (Tafel 35).
91 ‘Hic sunt annotati quos abbas Georgius auctoritate Domini pape Kalisti signo sancte crucis insignivit contra Turcos transeundos versus civitatem Kriechinsch Beissenburig.’
92 Tamás Pálosfalvi, From Nicopolis to Mohács: a history of Ottoman-Hungarian warfare, 1389–1526, Leiden 2018, 174–87.
93 Hayer, Die deutschen Handschriften, 364.
94 For the list of abbots of Michaelbeuern see Ulrich Faust and Waltraud Krassnig (eds), Die Benediktinischen Mönchs- und Nonnenklöster in Österreich und Südtirol, ii, St Ottilien 2001, 745–6.
95 Gerald Hirtner and Michael Fröstl, ‘Die Romreisen des Abts Georg Liebenknecht von Michaelbeuern (1448/1450): Edition, Kommentar und Übersetzung’, in Peter Erhart and Jakob Kuratli Hüeblin (eds), Nach Rom gehen: monastische Reisekultur von der Spätantike bis in die Neuzeit, Wien–Köln–Weimar 2021, 167–8, picture 1.
96 ‘Dominus noster Ihesus Christus te absolvat et ego auctoritate eiusdem ac sanctissimi domini Kalisti tertii pape mihi in hac parte specialiter concessa te absolvo a peccatis tuis que mihi modo confessus es et que libenter confiteres si memorie occurrerent’: St Peter, Salzburg, ms b. IX. 28, fo. 125r.
97 ‘Pro satisfactione nil tibi iniungo, nisi ut contra Turcum sine fraude et dolo pergas et usque ad operis consummationem ad minus per anni circulum perseveres’: ibid. fo. 125v.
98 Weber, Lutter contre les Turcs, 279. Weber probably means a papal bull called Ad summi pontificatus apicem, 15 May 1455: Diplomatarium svecanum appendix: acta pontificum svecia, I: Acta cameralia, ed. L. M. Baath, ii, Stockholm 1957, 394–8, no. 1251; Odoricus Raynaldus, Annales ecclesiastici, xxix, Bar-le-Duc 1880, s.a. 1455, § 19. See also Norman Housley, Crusading and the Ottoman threat, 1453–1505, Oxford 2013, 128.
99 Urkundenbuch des Benedictiner-Stiftes St. Paul im Kärnten, ed. Beda Schroll, Wien 1876, 424–5.
100 Concilium Basiliense: Studien und Quellen zur Geschichte des Konzils von Basel, iii, ed. Johannes Haller, Basle 1900, 22; v, ed. Johannes Haller and others, Basle 1904, 80. For the mention of the twentieth in Salzburg see iii. 190.
101 Otakar Odložilik, The Hussite king: Bohemia in European affairs, 1440–1471, Rahway, NJ 1965, 194–207.
102 Portnykh, ‘Le Traité d'Humbert de Romans (op)’, 611. See also a description of the whole codex by Christine Glassner and Maria Stieglecker, <manuscripta.at/hs_detail.php?ID=39405>.
103 Amnon Linder, Raising arms: liturgy in the struggle to liberate Jerusalem in the late Middle Ages, Turnhout 2003, 190.
104 Iorga, Notes et extraits, iv. 132–4.
105 Alphons Lhotsky and Konradin Ferrari d'Occhieppo, ‘Zwei Gutachten Georgs von Peuerbach über Kometen (1456 und 1457)’, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung lxviii (1960), 266–90. See also Jane L. Jervis, Cometary theory in fifteenth-century Europe, Dordrecht 1985, 52–69, 86–92.
106 Hesbert, René-Jean, Corpus Antiphonalium Officii, iii, Rome 1968, 331, no. 3732Google Scholar.
107 Walther Lipphardt, ‘Mitten wir im Leben sind: Zur Geschichte des Liedes und seiner Weise’, Jahrbuch für Liturgik und Hymnologie viii (1963), 107, and ‘Die älteste Quelle‘, 161.
108 A photograph of the song in this manuscript is published in Lipphardt, ‘Mitten wir im Leben sind,’ 114.
109 Another copy of this song preserved in Salzburg St Peter (A II 9) reads ‘wir’ instead of ‘mir’ in this and subsequent lines, and this makes more sense. The text from A II 9 is published with some errors in Bruggisser-Lanker, Therese, Musik und Tod im Mittelalter: Imaginationsräume der Transzendenz, Göttingen 2008, 182Google Scholar.
110 Rehm, Walther, Der Todesgedanke in der deutschen Dichtung vom Mittelalter bis zur Romantik, Tübingen 1967, 75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
111 Jürgen Hartwig Ibs, Die Pest in Schleswig-Holstein von 1350 bis 1547/48: eine sozialgeschichtliche Studie über eine wiederkehrende Katastrophe, Frankfurt am Main 1994, 113–16.
112 Leopold Öhler, Die Pest in Salzburg, Salzburg 2013, 26, 54; Franz Dückher, Saltzburgische Chronica, Graz 1979 (repr. of 1666 edition), 208.
113 Genuth, Sara Schechner, Comets, popular culture, and the birth of modern cosmology, Princeton 1997, 29Google Scholar.
114 Labbé, Thomas, Les Catastrophes naturelles au moyen âge, Paris 2017, 128Google Scholar.
115 ‘erschien ein erschrocklicher Comet, der viel Jammers und Blutvergiessens bedeutet’: Dückher, Saltzburgische Chronica, 208.
116 Meserve, Empires of Islam, 181.
117 Robert Schwoebel, The shadow of the crescent: the Renaissance image of the Turk (1453–1517), Nieuwkoop 1967, 72; Pius ii, Commentarii rerum memorabilium quae temporibus suis contigerunt, Rome 1584, 59.
118 Weber, Lutter contre les Turcs, 202, 459.
119 ‘Excerpta de hiis que dominus noster sanctissimus papa in bulla sua noviter videlicet xii kl iulii anno domini mccclvi emanata pro salute fidelium et presertim eorum qui contra turchos pugnaturi inierunt fieri vult atque mandat’: St Peter, Salzburg b. IX. 28, fo. 129v.
120 Raynaldus, Annales ecclesiastici, xxix, year 1456, § 19–23.
121 Döring, Türkenkrieg und Medienwandel, 65, 220.
122 ‘Instituimus nuper pro salute et victoria Christi fidelium obtinenda contra Turchos processiones, ieiunia et orationes singulis septimanis feria quarta faciendas’: St Peter, Salzburg, b. IX. 28, fo. 129r.
123 The bull reads: ‘mandamus insuper atque precipimus, quatenus in singulis civitatibus, terris, castris et villis sive locis vestrarum diocesum, aut administrationum sive iurisdictionum, omnibus primis diebus dominicis singulorum mensium processiones generales fieri faciatis, ad quas omnis populus conveniat’ (p. 69). This part of the bull is reflected in the bull summary recorded in our manuscript: ‘item mandat idem dominus noster sanctissimus omnibus archiepiscopis, episcopis et personis ecclesiaticis per orbem christianum constitutis, quatenus in civitatibus, opidis, villis et locis suarum diocesium et administracionum omnibus primis diebus dominicis singulorum mensium processiones generales fieri faciant ad quos omnis populus conveniat’: ibid. 129v-130r.
124 Pilat and Cristea, The Ottoman threat and crusading, 135–7.
125 Helmrath, Johannes, ‘The German Reichstage and the crusade’, in Housley, Norman (ed.), Crusading in the fifteenth century: message and impact, Basingstoke 2004, 65Google Scholar; Dan Ioan Mureşan, ‘Bessarion's Orations against the Turks and crusade propaganda at the Große Christentag of Regensburg (1471)’, in Norman Houseley (ed.), Reconfiguring the fifteenth-century crusade, London 2017, 218–22.
126 Humbertus de Romanis, De predicatione crucis, 58.
127 Binz, Gustav, Die deutschen Handschriften der Öffentlichen Bibliothek der Universität Basel, I: Die Handschriften der Abteilung A, Basel 1907, 131Google Scholar.
128 Linder, Raising arms, 27, 132, 134–5.
