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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 08 July 2019
In the early twentieth century, scientists at the Pasteur Institute and its colonial affiliates developed a historically specific form of bacteriological technoscience, which abstracted the human–microbe relationship from its environmental and social context, and created a model for public health governance that operated at the scale of the empire, rather than at the level of individual colonies or regions. Using a case study of tuberculosis management, this article argues that the success of the Pastorian model relied on its technopolitical vision of a universal model of managing human–microbe relations, while, in reality, exploiting precisely those fissures created by the uneven political and scientific landscape of the colonial and scientific world in which it operated. Pastorian bacteriology helped imperial administrators to imagine a globe-spanning, standardized empire, while restricting public health governance to technological innovations, rather than a proposal for social hygiene that would have expanded labour and associational rights for subject populations.
The author would like to thank audiences at the Oxford Science, Technology, and Medicine seminar, the Modern Europe workshop at NYU, the University of Southern California History Department, and, in particular, Herrick Chapman, Mark Harrison, Robyn d’Avignon, Marysia Jonsson, and the anonymous reviewers of the Journal of Global History for valuable comments. The project leading to this application has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 747591.
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18 Marcel Léger discusses these dissertations in his overview of tuberculosis studies in West Africa, ‘La tuberculose au Sénégal, étude historique’, Bulletin du Comité d’Études Historiques et Scientifiques de l’Afrique Occidentale Française, 1922, pp. 534–6.
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35 Archives de l’Institut Pasteur, Paris (henceforth AIP), CAL.A1, Albert Calmette, autobiography, p. 17.
36 Calmette, Albert, Infection bacillaire et la tuberculose chez l’homme et chez les animaux, Paris: Masson et Cie, 1920, p. 600 Google Scholar, emphasis in original.
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45 Calmette, ‘Enquête sur l’épidémiologie’, p. 498.
46 Kermorgant, La tuberculose, pp. 9, 11–12.
47 Calmette, ‘Enquête sur l’épidémiologie’, p. 542. Calmette recapitulated this argument later in a number of popular and scientific publications. See AIP, BCG.37, Albert Calmette, ‘La lutte antituberculeuse dans les colonies françaises, principalement en Afrique Occidentale’, c.1931, pp. 2–3.
48 Calmette, ‘Enquête sur l’épidémiologie’, p. 542.
49 Ibid ., p. 543.
50 Ibid ., p. 497.
51 Ibid ., p. 498.
52 Harrison, Mark and Worboys, Michael, ‘A disease of civilization: tuberculosis in Britain, Africa and India, 1900–39’, in Marks, L. and Worboys, M., eds., Migrants, minorities and health: historical and contemporary studies, London: Routledge, 1997, pp. 93–124 Google Scholar; Packard, White plague, black labor.
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58 S. Rosso, ‘Alors que l’Exposition se ferme’, Le Cri des Nègres, November 1931.
59 Saumane, ‘L’Exposition coloniale internationale’, La Race Nègre, April 1931; S. Rosso, ‘L’impérialisme aux abois’, Le Cri des Nègres, September 1931. There is an interesting parallel here with invocations of neurasthenia as a ‘disease of civilization’ in colonial Vietnam. See Monnais, Laurence, ‘Colonised and neurasthenic: from the appropriation of a word to the reality of a malaise de civilisation in urban French Vietnam’, Health and History, 14, 1, 2012, pp. 133–6Google ScholarPubMed.
60 SHD-Toulon, 2013 ZK 005 223, Édouard Daladier, ‘Rapport et projet de décret au président de la République par le ministre des Territoires d’Outre-mer Daladier sur le service de santé (1924)’.
61 SHD-Toulon, 2013 ZK 005 223, Édouard Daladier, ‘Rapport au Président de la République Française’, 1 November, 1924.
62 SHD-Toulon, 2013 ZK 005 449, C. Chippaux, ‘L’Institut de Médecine Tropicale du Service de Santé des Armées et l’oeuvre de Santé Publique des Médecins des troupes de Marine dans les pays d’Outre-Mer’, 1988, p. 22; 2013 ZK 005 223, ‘Développement des services sanitaires et des oeuvres d’hygiène et d’assistance aux Territoires d’Outre-mer de 1925 à 1928’, 1928.
63 SHD-Toulon, 2013 ZK 005 161, Governor-General Jules Carde, circular to the lieutenant-governors and prefects of the AOF, 12 March 1924.
64 Albert, Calmette, Guérin, Camille, and Weill-Hallé, Benjamin, ‘Essai d’immunisation contre l’infection tuberculeuse’, Bulletin de l’Académie Nationale de Médecine, 91, 1924, pp. 787–96Google Scholar; Calmette, Albert and Guérin, Camille, ‘Vaccination des bovidés contre la tuberculose et méthode nouvelle de prophylaxie de la tuberculose bovine’, Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, 38, 1924, pp. 371–98Google Scholar.
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66 RAC, RG 3, Series 900, box 9, History Source Material vol. 8, 1900–01.
67 RAC, RG 1.1, Series 500 T, box 28, folder 266, Overview of the Rockefeller Mission to France, summary; ‘La croisade des Américains contre la tuberculose en France’, Revue des Deux Mondes, 15 September 1919, p. 459.
68 For example, Bernard, Etienne, Tuberculose et médecine sociale, Paris: Masson, 1938, pp. 2–3 Google Scholar (statistics on 7).
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70 AIP, BCG.14, J. Lignières, ‘Quelques réflexions sur les mesures d’hygiene appliquées a la prophylaxie de la tuberculose humaine et sur l’emploi du BCG’, Académie de Médecine, 2 October 1928, pp. 932–3.
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75 League of Nations Archive, Geneva (henceforth LNA), R.881, Letters of Yves M. Biraud to Albert Calmette, 1924–25.
76 LNA, C.H.745, ‘Report of the technical conference for the study of vaccination against tuberculosis by means of BCG, Oct 15–18, 1928’, pp. 7–8.
77 AIP, BCG.9, Albert Calmette, ‘La vaccination préventive de la tuberculose par le B.C.G.: objections qui ont été faites à cette méthode’; BCG.14, ‘Réponse à M. S.A. Petroff par Albert Calmette’, n.d. (c.1930). For critical readings of the LNHO report, see AIP, BCG.19, translation of Breslauer Neueste Nachricher, 28 May 1930; BCG.17, ‘Le procès de Lubeck: les débats ne sont pas encore terminés’, Le Matin, 1 November 1931.
78 AIP, NIC.3, Albert Calmette to Charles Nicolle, 3 June 1930; BCG.16, Calmette to Prof. W. Kolle, 6 October 1931.
79 AIP, BCG.37, Minister of the Colonies Daladier, circular to the Governors-General of Madagascar, the AOF, and Indochina, 20 September 1924; Daladier’s circular to the governors of Togo and Cameroun, 30 August 1929.
80 AIP, BCG.37, Daladier to Governor-General of Madagascar, 20 September 1924; Daladier’s circular to the governors of Togo and Cameroun, 30 August 1929.
81 AIP, BCG.37, Daladier to Governor-General of Madagascar, 20 September 1924.
82 AIP, NIC.3, Calmette to Charles Nicolle, 23 July 1926.
83 AIP, BCG.37, Daladier’s circular to the governors of Togo and Cameroun, 30 August 1929.
84 AIP, BCG.37, J. Bablet, ‘Les vaccinations antituberculeuse des nourrissons par ingestion de BCG en Cochinchine (1924–25)’.
85 Archives Nationales d’Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence (henceforth ANOM), RSTNF 3865, Institut Pasteur de Hanoi, ‘Instruction relative a l’emploi du vaccin du BCG dans les essais d’immunisation des nouveau-nés contre l’infection tuberculeuse’, n.d.; Résident Supérieur du Tonkin, circular to local prefects and residents, 1 March 1928.
86 Rosenberg, ‘International politics’.
87 LNA, C.H.745, ‘Report of the technical conference for the study of vaccination against tuberculosis by means of BCG’, Albert Calmette’s report, pp. 24–5, 43–6, 47–63; AIP, BCG.37, ‘Conférence à la Royal Society’, 9 June 1932, Calmette’s notes.
88 Monnais-Rousselot, Médecine et colonisation, pp. 269–99; Aso, ‘Forests without birds’, pp. 154–208.
89 AIP, IND.C1, ‘Rapport au grand conseil des intérêts économiques et financiers et au conseil de gouvernement de l’Indochine sur le fonctionnement des Instituts Pasteur d’Indochine, 1928’, p. 9; VNA-II, GouCoch, IIA.53/2415, Letter of the Governor-General to the Pasteur Institute of Saigon.
90 Monnais-Rousselot, ‘Preventive medicine’.
91 Brocheux, Pierre and Daniel, Héméry, Indochina: an ambiguous colonization 1858–1954, trans. Klein, Ly-Lan Dill, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2011, pp. 305–14Google Scholar.
92 Ibid ., p. 318.
93 Aso, ‘Forests without birds’, p. 199.
94 Ibid ., pp. 204–6.
95 Ibid ., p. 200; Monnais-Rousselot, ‘Preventive medicine’, p. 45.
96 Monnais-Rousselot, ‘Preventive medicine’, p. 46.
97 Vietnamese National Archives I, Hanoi (henceforth VNA-I), RST 32.090, André Honnorat, sénateur, président de la CNDT to the Résident Supérieur du Tonkin, 30 March 1926.
98 VNA-I, RST 32.090, Directeur Local de la Santé to the Résident Supérieur du Tonkin, 18 May 1926.
99 VNA-I, RST 32.090, Ministry of the Colonies to the Resident Superieur de Tonkin, 2 March 1926.
100 VNA-I, RST 32.090, Albert Calmette, ‘L’effort national de défense contre la tuberculose’.
101 See, for instance, the report of the translation of Guérin’s brochure by Dr Nguyen Van Khai and the demand for further popularization by Mr Huy in VNA-II, GouCoch, IIB.56/094, ‘Comité d’hygiêne de la ville de Cholon, procès verbal du Comité d’Études pour la lutte contre la tuberculose’, 13 December 1924; VNA-II, GouCoch, 7163, ‘La vie saine’, December 1926.
102 ANOM, RSTNF 3864, ‘Organisation de la lutte contre la tuberculose au Tonkin’, 8 October 1936; RSTNF 1484, C. Mandel to the Ligue des Droits de l’Homme et de Citoyen, 5 October 1936; RSTNF 660, ‘Demande de capacité juridique’, 1933.
103 Vietnamese National Archives IV, Dalat (henceforth VNA-IV), S.125, Report by Hoang Mong Luong, 1939, ‘Dossier relatif aux autres épidémies dans les diverses provinces en Annam, années 1911–1938’.
104 Ibid .
105 VNA-II, GouCoch, 7193, G. Striedter, Inspecteur des Affaires Politiques et Administratives to the Gouverneur de la Colonie, 10 August 1932.
106 Ibid .
107 VNA-II, GouCoch, 7193, L’Inspecteur Général de l’Hygiène et de la Santé Publiques to the Directeur Local de la Santé en Cochinchine, 24 October 1935.
108 Ibid .
109 VNA-II, GouCoch, 7193, G. Striedter, Inspecteur des Affaires Politiques et Administratives to the Gouverneur de la Colonie, 10 August 1932.
110 ANOM, RSTNF 660, ‘Rapport du Directeur Local de la Santé sur la tuberculose au Tonkin’, 26 June 1928.
111 Ibid ., emphasis in original.
112 ANOM, RSTNF 660, ‘Note du 1er bureau’, 24 May 1928.
113 VNA-II, GouCoch, 7193, G. Striedter, Inspecteur des Affaires Politiques et Administratives to the Gouverneur de la Colonie, 10 August 1932.
114 Ibid .
115 Monnais-Rousselot, ‘Preventive medicine’, pp. 54–5.
116 AIP, BCG.37, A. Calmette, ‘Vaccination préventive de la tuberculose par le BCG’, 1933, p. 5.
117 AIP, BCG.37, Dr Lasnet, ‘Infection tuberculeuse et vaccination BCG’, 1930, pp. 8–10.
118 For a longer discussion of the limits imposed by the colonial order on determining the health effects of BCG, see Rosenberg, ‘International politics’, pp. 684–6. Rosenberg misattributes the discussion of the Indochinese état-civil to Calmette. The author was Dr Lasnet.
119 AIP, BCG.37, Dr Lasnet, ‘Infection tuberculeuse et vaccination BCG’, p. 10.
120 For the post-war health order, see Pearson, Colonial politics of public health.
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124 In addition to this article, see Monnais-Rousselot, ‘Preventive medicine’, for the urban impact of the vaccine.
125 Lachénal, ‘Dubai stage’, pp. 53–71.
